Bitextual work
Writing form
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Bitextual work (or bi-textual work) is a form of writing in which a single sequence of words yields two or more distinct interpretations by exploiting lexical polysemy and structural ambiguity. It resembles a pun in its use of multiple meanings but differs in that it is crafted to support distinct narrative or semantic readings rather than a single humorous effect.
This literary technique was widely used in Classical Sanskrit literature and influenced its adoption in various later Indian vernacular traditions. In Sanskrit, it is termed śleṣa, a word often translated as ‘embrace’ in the sense of ‘joining’ or ‘connection’ in linguistic contexts. Scholarly accounts trace their earliest documented use to the 6th century CE, and examples appear in Sanskrit and later Indic literary traditions through the medieval and early modern periods. In modern times, the writing of bi-textual poems has been described by some commentators as less valued within certain literary circles.[1][2][3]
The term "bitextual work," or more specifically "bitextual poetry," should not be confused with "bidirectional poetry," a genre of Sanskrit poetry in which each stanza can be read both from left to right and from right to left, with the two readings yielding different meanings. The poem Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvyaṃ (c. 1580) by Sūryadāsa is a well-known example of bidirectional poetry.
Examples of bitextual verse
Daṇḍin (fl. 7th–8th century) in his Kāvyādarśa, which is the earliest surviving systematic treatment of poetics in Sanskrit, illustrates the concept of sleṣa with the following verse:[4]
- असावुदयमारूढः कान्तिमान् रक्तमण्डलः ।
- राजा हरति लोकस्य हृदयं मृदुभिः करैः ॥
- asāvudayamārūdhah kāntimān raktamandalah ।
- rājāharati lokasya hrdayam mrdubhih karaih ॥
This verse can be translated into English in two ways, with different meanings:[4]
- “This person has ascended the region of prosperity and is full of splendour; and the mandalas of districts are attached to him; and he, the king, captivates the hearts of the people by light taxes."
- "This resplendent moon has ascended the heavens and is full of splendour and is reddish (as he newly rises), and he captivates the people by soft rays."
The two interpretations arise due to the different meanings of the words that appear in the verse. The word "udaya" has several meanings. In the first interpretation, it refers to a king’s rise to power; in the second, it refers to the eastern mountain over which the moon ascends. Likewise, the word "maṇḍala" translates to "circle", like the moon’s disc, which is the meaning used in the second translation of the verse. However, it can also refer to a king’s circle of allies, which is the meaning chosen in the first translation. The word "kara" refers to taxes levied by a king, but it can also be translated as "[the moon’s] rays". In a more general setting, such as in Sanskrit traditions, the moon itself is imagined as the king of the stars.
Daṇḍin has followed the above verse with the following verse which may be thought of as the continuation of a poem:[4]
- दोषाकरेण सम्बन्धन् नक्षत्रपथवर्तिना ।
- राज्ञा प्रदोषो मामिथमप्रियं किं न बाधते ॥
- doṣākareṇa sambandhan nakṣatrapathavartinā ।
- rājñā pradoṣo māmithamapriyaṃ kiṃ na bādhate ॥
The two different translations of the verse based on its two different meanings are as follows:[3]
- "Having secured an alliance with that vicious king, whose conduct is far from noble, is there anything to stop this villain from tormenting his enemy — me?"
- "Now that he’s joined by that nocturnal king, who resides among the planets, is there anything to stop the evening from tormenting me — separated from my beloved?"
To get the different meanings, the words in the verse might have to be split up differently. For example, the word "nakṣatra" without splitting up means "planet", but it can be split up as "na" + "kṣatra", which then has the meaning "not a warrior".
Bitextual work in India
Early Sanskrit poets appear to have used śleṣa sparingly. For example, śleṣa does not occur in Valmiki’s Ramayana, which is regarded as one of the earliest Sanskrit epics. Although the mahākāvyas of the second-century CE author Aśvaghoṣa contain instances of śleṣa, the fourth-century poet and playwright Kālidāsa employed it relatively infrequently.
Śleṣa appears prominently for the first time in the works of the sixth-century CE poet Bhāravi. One of the earliest literary works to use śleṣa extensively is Vāsavadattā, a classical Sanskrit romantic prose narrative attributed to the sixth-century author Subandhu. Although little is known about Subandhu, the number of surviving commentaries on Vāsavadattā is more than twenty, suggesting that it was widely read and influential.
Notable bitextual works
The following is a partial list of some of the notable bitextual works written in Sanskrit still available today:[3]
- Cidambarakavi, Pañcakalyānacampū
- Cidambarakavi, Rāghavapāndavayādavīya (c. 1600)
- Dhanañjaya, Dvisandhāna Mahākāvya (c. 800)
- Haradatta Sūri, Rāghavanaisadhīya (c. 1700)
- Hemacandrasūri, Nābheyanemikāvya (c. 1125)
- Kavirāja, Rāghavapāndavīya (c. 1175)
- Krsnakavi, Naisadhapārijāta (seventeenth century)
- Krsnapandita, Rāghavapāndavīya (c. 1250)
- Sandhyākaranandin, Rāmacaritam (c. 1100)
- Śesācalapati, Kosalabhosalīya (c. 1700)
- Vasupraharāja, Rāghavayādavīya (eighteenth century)
- Venkatādhvari,[spelling?] Yādavarāghavīya (c. 1650)
- Vidyāmādhava, Pārvatīrukminīya (c. 1200)