Biryani

Historical sources

Pilau (Persian: پلو 'plo', "rice") is a Persian rice dish, attested by the polymath and physician Avicenna in 10th century Persia.^[10]

The Mughal text Ain-i-Akbari (written 1589–1596^[11]), from the time of the emperor Akbar, mentions both pilau and biryani, listing ingredients with required quantities for each:^[12]

Secondly, [dishes] in which meat and rice, &c., are used ... 2. Duzdbiryán. 10 s[eer] rice, 3½ s. g'hí; 10 s. meat; ½ s. salt: this gives five dishes. 3. Qimah Paláo. Rice and meat as in the preceding; 4 s. g'hí; 1 s. peeled gram; 2 s. onions; ½ s. salt; ¼ s. fresh ginger, and pepper; cuminseed, cardamums and cloves, 1 d[han]. of each: this gives five dishes.^[a][12]

The Ain-i-Akbari further names a dish of spiced mutton as a biryani, this time without mentioning rice:

Thirdly, meats with spices... Biryán. For a whole Dashmandi sheep, take 2 s[eer] salt; 1 s[eer] g'hí; 2 m[āshā] saffron, cloves, pepper, cuminseed: it is made in various ways."^[a][12]

The Portuguese priest Sebastien Manrique described rice dishes on sale in the tent-city of the next Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as he travelled to Lahore in 1641. Manrique distinguished "Persian" pilau from "Mogol" biryani:

Among these dishes the principal and most substantial were the rich and aromatic Mogol Bringes [biryanis]^[b] and Persian pilaos of different hues".^[14]

The dish is mentioned, too, in letters of the emperor Aurangzeb to his son.^[15] For example:

Exalted son, I remember the savour of your 'khichidi' and 'biryani' during the winter. Truly the 'kabuli' cooked by Islam Khan does not surpass them (in point of relish and savour). I wanted to have from you (in my service) Saliman, who cooks 'biryani'; but you did not allow him to serve as my cook. If you happen to find a pupil of his, skilful in the art of cookery, you will send him to me.^[17][18]

According to the historian Rana Safvi, the earliest actual recipe is from the later Mughal period, from Bahadur Shah Zafar's time.^[16]

Analysis

The historian of food Lizzie Collingham writes that the modern biryani developed in India (Hindustan) in the royal kitchens of the Mughal Empire, specifically during the rule of the emperor Akbar (1556–1605), and is a mix of the native spicy rice dishes of South Asia, Persian yoghurt-marinated meat, and the Persian pilau style of garnished rice.^[1] Collingham writes that "in the kitchens [of the Mughal court]... the delicately flavoured Persian pilau met the pungent and spicy rice dishes of Hindustan to create the classic Mughlai dish, biryani".^[1]

The cookery writer Pratibha Karan states that biryani is of Indian origin, derived from pilau which Muslim traders and invaders brought with them. She speculates that pilau was an army dish in medieval India. Armies would prepare a one-pot dish of rice with any available red meat. Over time, the dish became biryani due to different methods of cooking.^[9][13]

In the view of the historian of Islamic cuisine Salma Hussein^[3] and others, biryani came to South Asia from Persia before the Mughal era,^[13] most probably arriving in South India's Deccan region, brought by travelling soldier-statesmen and pilgrims.^[3] It has also been suggested that the dish was introduced from Persia by the Mughals.^[19] Another variant theory, that biryani came to India with Timur's invasion, appears to be incorrect because there is no record of biryani having existed in his native region of Central Asia during that period.^[13]

The historian of food K. T. Achaya states that pilau is "of older usage in India" than biryani, indicating that it could have been a precursor of biryani.^[2] Achaya notes that ancient and early medieval Indian texts described rice cooked with meat and spices, suggesting that composite rice dishes were part of the subcontinent's cuisine long before the Mughal period.^[20]He further references early Tamil literature from the Sangam era (c. 300 BCE–300 CE), describing a dish known in these sources as ūn sōru—rice cooked with meat, ghee, and spices—which bears structural similarities to later layered rice preparations.^[21]

Pakki and kacchi biryani

Biryani can be cooked using one of two techniques, pakki ("cooked") and kacchi ("raw").^[30] In a pakki biryani, the ingredients are cooked separately (at least in part) and then arranged in layers. The different layers can be individually coloured and flavoured with a brightly-coloured spice such as turmeric or saffron.^[30] In a kacchi biryani, layers are arranged in a pot which is then sealed and cooked slowly (Dum cooking) for the food to steam in its own liquid.^[30]

Difference between biryani and pilau

Pilau is a mixed rice dish popular in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, and Middle Eastern cuisine. Opinions differ on the differences between the dishes, if any.^[31][32]

The British-era author Abdul Halim Sharar mentions that biryani has a stronger curried taste due to a greater amount of spices.^[31][33] According to Delhi-based historian Sohail Hashmi, pilau tends to be plainer than biryani, and consists of meat or vegetables cooked with rice with the bottom layered with potatoes or onions. Biryani contains more gravy, and is often cooked longer, leaving the meat (and vegetables, if present) more tender, and the rice more flavoured. Biryani is cooked with additional dressings and often has a light layer of scorched rice at the bottom.^[23]

The cookery author Pratibha Karan states that while the terms are often applied arbitrarily, the main distinction is that a biryani consists of two layers of rice with a layer of meat (and vegetables, if present) in the middle, while the pilau is not layered. Further, in modern usage, biryani is the primary dish in a meal, while pilau is usually a secondary accompaniment to a larger meal; and biryanis have more complex and stronger spices than pilaus.^[13]

The translator and cookery author Colleen Taylor Sen notes that the difference has been extensively debated, that the dishes are both of long-grained rice with meat or vegetables, and are sometimes "almost impossible to tell apart". However, pilau is usually a side dish, biryani a "centre piece" with its own sides; and pilau is a one-pot dish, while biryani's rice and meat can be cooked separately.^[34]

In the Indian subcontinent

There are many types of biryani in the Indian subcontinent. Biryani is the single most-ordered dish in Indian online food ordering and delivery services, and has been described as the most popular dish in India.^[35][36] The names of variants are often based on their region or city of origin. Some have taken the name of the shop that sells it, as in Fakhruddin Biriyani in Dhaka,^[37][38] Students biryani in Karachi, Lucky biryani in Bandra, Mumbai and Baghdadi biryani in Colaba, Mumbai.^[23] Biryanis are often specific to the Muslim communities where they originate; they are usually the defining dishes of those communities.^[39][40]

In 2009, the Deccani Biryani Makers Association submitted 'Hyderabadi Biryani' for a geographical indication, but the attempt failed as they were unable to provide documentary evidence of its historical origin.^[41]

Outside the Indian subcontinent

Varieties of biryani have arisen in many countries,^[42] and was often spread to such places by South Asian diaspora populations.^[43] For example in Myanmar, danpauk (ဒံပေါက်) is a mainstay at festive events such as weddings.^[44][45] On the Persian Gulf, biryani (Persian: برياني) is usually saffron-based with chicken,^[46] while in Indonesia nasi kebuli is an spicy steamed rice dish^[47] cooked in goat meat broth, milk and ghee.^[48] In Thailand the dish is known as khao mhok (Thai: ข้าวหมก), using chicken, beef or fish, topped with fried garlic and served with a green sour sauce.^[49]