Chapati

Ingredients

Chapatis are made using a soft dough prepared with atta, a common type of whole wheat flour that is stone-ground using a chakki.^[8] This is mixed with water, typically 60 to 80 percent, to form a smooth dough.^[9] Optionally, it may have small amounts of salt—about 0.5 to 2 percent^[10]—and oil.^[11]

The atta used in chapati is typically milled to high extraction—about 70–100% extraction, commonly 90% in rural kitchens and 80% in industrial settings.^[12] It also contains a high ash content.^[13] It is often sifted to remove 3 to 5 percent of the coarsest grains; the optimal flour can have 80% of its grains pass through a 60-mesh (scale) sieve. The byproduct of this, known as resultant atta, may also be used for chapati.^[14] Chapati typically uses common wheat, which results in its soft, pliable texture.^[15] Durum wheat is added in some parts of India.^[16]

Kneading and shaping

The dough is kneaded by hand for 10 to 15 minutes, reaching a firm consistency and developing gluten. The dough may be kneaded mechanically, using a planetary mixer or a horizontal bread mixer.^[17] It is left to rest for 30 to 120 minutes, though mechanically mixed dough requires only 15 to 20 minutes. After resting, the dough becomes softer and more relaxed. Portions of the dough, weighing 35 to 40 grams (1.2 to 1.4 oz), are formed into balls that are rolled into a circle^[17] about 10 to 15 centimetres (3.9 to 5.9 in) across and 2 to 3 mm thick.^[18] This is typically done by dusting the dough with flour and rolling it out^[17] on a circular rolling board (a chakla), using a rolling pin known as a velan or belan.^{[citation needed]} Oil may be used during rolling.^[10]

Mechanical shaping processes are faster and more consistent than using a rolling pin. Chapati presses have two iron plates on a hinge, between which dough is placed; a lever connected to the lower plate is folded over the upper plate to apply pressure. These are used in both professional and home kitchens and can produce over 100 chapatis per hour. Another pressing device places the dough on a pedal-operated plate that pushes it onto a top plate; this can produce over 200 chapatis per hour.^[19] Dough sheeting machines using rollers are common in high-volume kitchens.^[20] Equipment used to make tortillas is sometimes be used for chapati.^[21]

Cooking

The rolled-out dough is thrown on a dry tava, a type of iron griddle, and cooked on both sides,^[22] being flipped once bubbles start to form.^[23] It cooks at 200 to 220 °C (392 to 428 °F) for 1 to 2 minutes^[17]—about 45 seconds on one side and 90 seconds on the other.^[13] This rapid cooking on a hot surface is similar to the method used for Arab breads.^[24]

Chapati puffs up as moisture in the dough changes into steam.^[25] Sometimes, chapatis are only partially cooked on the skillet, and then cooked directly over a flame or hot coals for a few seconds to puff up.^[26] This is called a phulka,^[22] though phulka may be a thinner version.^[27] It is also possible to puff up the roti directly on the tava, applying pressure with a dry cloth,^[17] or in an oven at about 350 °C (662 °F).^[13]

The inflation causes chapati to be soft and pliable.^[27] In the absence of leavening, the formation of steam is responsible for the separation of crust and crumb.^[28] The crust comprises almost the entire chapati,^[29] while the crumb contains starch that is highly deformed and gelatinisation.^[30] Conduction is the main mode of heat transfer, forming a hard surface^[31] through starch gelatinisation.^[23]

Some machines both shape and bake chapati dough. The roti maker is similar to a chapati press but with a heating element that cooks the dough, which lifts up the upper plate as it inflates.^[32] Some machines perform continuous sheeting and baking;^[33] these may produce hundreds of chapatis per hour.^[34]

Chapatis are served while hot and fresh. They are often topped with butter or ghee.^[17] According to a 2020 survey in Delhi, the median portion size of chapati is 70 grams, averaging 2 chapatis for women and 3 chapatis for men.^[35]

Variations and similar foods

Chapati is classified as a single-layer, unleavened, unfermented flatbread.^[36] Chapati is a form of roti, and it is one of several types that is dry roasted.^[22] In East Africa, roti and chapati are identical.^[37] Related flatbreads from South Asia also use atta but are differ based on their cooking technique; these include paratha, which has laminated dough; puri, which is deep fried; tandoori roti, which is larger than chapati; roomali roti, which is cooked on the bottom side of a pan;^[18] and thepla, which contains vegetables and spices.^[38]

Additional flours may be added to chapati in places where wheat is less available.^[39] A common version, known as mesi roti, uses Bengal gram chickpeas for 20 to 30 percent of the flour.^[40] Cornmeal chapatis are common in parts of North India in the winter.^[41] Amaranth lacks the gluten necessary for chapati, but may be combined with wheat to prepare chapati;^[42] this is eaten in the Himalayas.^[43] In parts of Pakistan that grow rice, rice flour, which also lacks gluten, is combined with other flours to prepare chapati.^[44] Rice flour is also used for gluten-free chapati, with hydrocolloids added for texture.^[45] Millets are also used in South Asia, including pearl millet,^[46] kodo millet,^[47], and sorghum; the latter is used for a crunchy, dry chapati.^[41] Sweet potato may be added to wheat chapati in Kenya.^[39] Other flours that can be blended include barley, cassava, soya, and groundnut.^[40]

In western regions of Maharashtra, some oil is added inside the rolled-out dough and then put on the tava; this is distinct from paratha.^{[citation needed]} In Gujarati cuisine, a rotlee is a chapati that is very thin.^[22] In the cuisine of Kerala, rice flour is used to make a thin chapati called podi-patthiri, which is served with coconut milk.^[48] The Tangkhul people of Manipur consume a chapati of rice flour, sugar syrup, and ground sesame.^[49] Among the Gaddi people of Himachal Pradesh have, a type of chapati called rot is large enough that one is an entire serving.^[50] In Rajasthan, pods of the sangri tree are added to wheat chapati.^[51]

The chapatis in East African cuisine are cooked in oil rather than over a flame.^[52]

Chapati diameter and thickness vary from region to region. Chapatis made in domestic kitchens are usually not larger than 15 centimetres (6 in) to 18 centimetres (7 in) in diameter since the tava on which they are made comes in sizes that fit comfortably on a domestic stovetop. Tavas were traditionally made of unglazed earthenware, but are now typically made from metal. The shape of the rolling pin also varies from region to region. Some households simply use a kitchen worktop as a sort of pastry board, but round flat-topped "boards" made of wood, stone, or stainless steel are available specifically for rolling out chapatis.^{[citation needed]}

There are many regional varieties of chapati in India:^{[citation needed]}

• Paneer chapati: Grated paneer is added to the usual chapati dough, which is also called 'paneer paratha'.^{[citation needed]}
• Radish/mullangi chapati: Grated radish and turmeric powder is added to the dough, and the chapati is usually thick. It is often eaten by lorry drivers who eat in roadside dhabas during long trips. It is also called 'mooli paratha'.^{[citation needed]}
• Vegetable-stuffed chapati: Mashed carrot, potato, peas, and fenugreek are slightly sautéed into a masala gravy. These chapatis are usually served rolled, and many households prepare them using their own combinations of available vegetables.^{[citation needed]}

Nutrition

The nutritional content of chapati comes from wheat.^[62] It consists of about 11–13% protein and 57% starch,^[63] with a high amount of dietary fibre.^[3] Chapati has a lower glycemic index than leavened breads,^[64] at around 60.^[65]

The cooking process results in the loss of vitamins, including vitamin B and lysine, while minerals are lost due to phytic acid reactions. However, chapati is high in zinc due to being whole-wheat.^[62] Chapati made of resultant atta is higher in niacin, thiamin, and riboflavin.^[66] Chapati may be fortified with vegetables to increase nutrients.^[67]

Physical qualities

Qualities desired by consumers of chapati include a softness, chewiness, pliability, a wheaty flavour and scent, mild sweetness, cream colour, and a high height when puffed.^[68] The desired appearance has uniform spots and no cracks.^[27] The size, shape, and preparation method may vary to a large extent.^[8]

As wheat flour is the main ingredient, the wheat and the way that it is processed have a strong impact on the qualities of chapati.^[69] The optimal flour contains about 10–13% protein, 7–9% moisture, and 10–16% damaged starch.^[12] Protein is a major factor on qualities;^[70] a higher amount results in toughness, while a lower amount results in brittleness.^[15] Some types of protein, including glutenin and gliadin, have significant effects; high gliadin content results in toughness.^[71] A study by Haridas Rao et al. found that protein in the flour is correlated with water absorption.^[8] Damaged starch is also correlated with water absorption, thus increasing softness.^[72] The milling method also affects chapati; a chakki breaks flour in a way that increases sweetness.^[73] The use of resultant atta results in less damaged starch.^[66] The level of flour extraction determines the colour,^[70] and higher-extraction flour increases softness.^[74] Flour with higher sugar and diastatic enzymes results in sweeter chapati.^[15] The type of wheat also affects properties; durum and emmer wheat result in dryer and tougher chapatis than common wheat.^[75] although blends containing small amounts of durum may result in acceptable, sweeter chapatis.^[76] Wheat varieties from India may contain the optimal protein contents for chapati.^[23]

The preparation process also has a strong impact on flavour and texture.^[31] Hydration and gluten formation during mixing contribute to texture. A high cooking temperature increases the height of puffing.^[77] The colour, flavour, and scent of chapati are a result of the Maillard reaction during cooking.^[78] Like other wheat-based foods, it contains acrylamides, a potentially hazardous compound produced through the Maillard reaction.^[79]

Some types of wheat flour require more water and result in softer and sweeter chapati.^[74] Adding salt to the dough can improve the texture of the dough to roll out and the final chapati.^[10] Adding oil can improve softness and pliability during storage, though it hinders puffing. Additives such as emulsifiers may improve the texture.^[80]

Different types of flours may be added to improve nutrition, shelf life, or physical qualities;^[81] their use has varying effects.^[82] Composite flours using barley or germinated wheat have been shown to result in acceptable chapatis, while flours such as soya flour may result in acceptable chapatis with increased nutritional value.^[76] Adding pulse flours increases protein content,^[83] while potato flour may increase softness and shelf life.^[84]

Shelf life

Chapati experiences quick staling, like other flatbreads,^[10] due to its high moisture.^[85] It has a shelf life of 24 to 36 hours.^[33] It stales due to starch retrogradation, a process in which the structure of starch molecules changes;^[86] gluten absorbs moisture from the starch.^[87] It quickly loses its texture,^[33] becoming hard and fragile.^[88] It also loses its flavour^[85] and experiences enzymatic browning.^[89] Mold may form within 3 to 4 days.^[85]

Chapati with higher shelf life may be produced with chemical preservatives, such as the stabiliser guar gum^[87] or the antifungal agent sorbic acid,^[85] as well as enzymes or emulsifiers.^[38] However, some preservatives result in bitterness. Thermal processing may also increase the shelf life without preservatives,^[33] and vacuum packing may produce chapatis that last one year.^[85] Chapati that is partly baked may be better for storing or freezing.^[90] Freezing and thawing chapati weakens proteins, so additives are used in frozen chapati.^[31]