Indaprasthanagara

Chronicle of the Padumasūriyavaṃśa

The Chronicle of Padumasūriyavaṃśa dates the establishment of Indapraṣṭhanagara to the early 8th century CE.^[d] According to this text, the infant prince Ketumāla and his mother were expelled by his father, Gomerāja, ruler of Pranagara Khemarājadhānī (พระนครเขมราชธานี).^[3]: 2 At the age of three, Ketumāla and his mother established a new settlement on the forested frontier of Pranagara Khemarājadhānī, near the Dong Phaya Fai mountain range, and named it "Indapraṣṭhanagara". Ketumāla was later formally enthroned as a local ruler by his father, resulting from his repeated refusals to return to the capital.^[3]: 4–5

The chronicle further relates that Ketumāla adopted Padumasūriyavaṃśa, who founded another settlement in an accretion area, likewise named "Indapraṣṭhanagara", from which he ruled after his father's death.^[3]: 4–5 While the chronicle does not provide explicit dates, Padumasūriyavaṃśa has been identified with figures mentioned in 17th-century European accounts of Siam, notably Du Royaume de Siam and the Instructions Given to the Siamese Envoys Sent to Portugal in 1684,^{[12]: 38 [13]: 127} which date his enthronement to 1300 BE (757 CE).^[14]

Moreover, the latter portion of the chronicle, which equates Indaprasthanagara with Angkor, recounts that a cattle trader named Phrom was elevated to the throne as a new ruler, founded a new city to the east of the river, established it as the principal center, and reigned there for twenty years before being succeeded by his son, whose name is not recorded;^{[15]: ๓๕–๖} this episode has been cited as contradicting the identification of Indaprasthanagara with Angkor, since the Angkorian epigraphic records reflect succession within established royal lineages and do not attest to the accession of a commoner of mercantile background.

Ayutthaya Testimonies and Tai Yuan chronicles

The Ayutthaya Testimonies provide a more geographically specific reference, stating that Indapraṣṭhanagara lay east of Sankhaburi in the Phraek Si Racha historical region.^[2]: 4–5 The city is further described as having existed prior to the reign of Padumasūriyavaṃśa,^[2]: 6 which is said to have begun in 757 CE.^[d] This area broadly corresponds to the central Menam Basin and the Si Thep zone. However, the Ratanabimbavaṃsa records that Adītaraj of Ayojjhapura—often identified with Si Thep^[16]—once launched a military campaign against Indapraṣṭhanagara at a time when the latter was suffering from a severe flood following the demise of its great king,^{[5]: 94 [16][17]: 51} while Lavo, also located east of Phraek Si Racha, is recorded as a tributary of Indapraṣṭhanagara in the Chronicle of Padumasuriyavamsa,^[3]: 8 thereby indicating that the three were distinct polities.^[16]

The location described in the Ayutthaya Testimonies corresponds closely with that recorded in the Yonok Chronicle [th] and the Legend of Singhanavati, which, in its account of the period associated with the legendary Yonok monarch Phrom (r. 379–444), states that Indapraṣṭhanagara was situated within the Chao Phraya Basin and possessed direct access to the sea, and served as the region to which the Khom people retreated following their defeat by Phrom.^{[9]: 82 [5]: 166}

Northern Chronicle and Legend of Phra Ruang

One version of the Legend of Phra Ruang, preserved in the Northern Chronicle, concerns Sricandradhipati, also known as Phra Ruang II of Sukhothai (r. 959–early 11 century). According to this account, Sricandradhipati was originally a commoner from Lavo tasked with collecting tribute for submission to Indaprasthanagara. After being ordered arrested by Sindhob Amarin, the king of Indaprasthanagara, he fled to Sukhothai, where he subsequently rose to kingship.^{[18]: 27–9}

The Northern Chronicle further identifies Indaprasthanagara as being ruled by Phraya Kreak (พญาแกรก).^[18]: 68 In the passage related to Sai Nam Peung in the Ayutthaya Testimonies, Phraya Kreak is described as the ruler of Phraek Si Racha,^[2]: 35 who assumed the regnal title Sindhob Amarin after conquering Mueang Wat Derm (เมืองวัดเดิม; later known as Ayodhya).^{[18]: 30–3}

Legend of Nakhon Si Thammarat and epigraphic evidence

Indapraṣṭhanagara is again mentioned in the Legend of Nakhon Si Thammarat [th]. This account states that Sri Dharmasokaraja I, identified as king of Indapraṣṭhanagara, fled southward, in 1117, with his brother Candrabhānu I (Sri Dharmasokaraja II)^[e] and his son Vaṃśasurā I (Sri Dharmasokaraja III) due to severe endemic disease and demographic decline in the royal city.^[4]: 37 Sri Dharmasokaraja I is said to have re-founded Nakhon Si Thammarat as his new seat of power.^{[4]: 37 [20]: 28}

This narrative is supported by the Dong Mè Nang Mưo’ng Inscription (K. 766), discovered north of the Phraek Si Racha region in modern Nakhon Sawan Province and dated to 1167 CE. The inscription records Sri Dharmasokaraja I as deceased and indicates the succession of Sri Dharmasokaraja II.^{[4]: 38 [19]} Together, the interpretation on both sources suggest that Sri Dharmasokaraja II may have attempted to reclaim the former northern territories, particularly the Phraek Si Racha and Lavo regions, of his father,^[4]: 40 reinforcing the hypothesis that Indapraṣṭhanagara lay in the lower Menam Valley.

Phra That Phanom Chronicle

Lan Xang Chronicle and Laotian legends

The Laotian Legend of Khun Borom attributes the founding of Indaprasthanagara to Khoun Kôm (ขุนกม or ลกกม), a son of Khun Borom,^[8]: 5 whose historicity David K. Wyatt tentatively placed in the 7th century.^[21] According to the Lan Xang Chronicle, a later episode occurred in the early 14th century, when Khun Yak Fah (ขุนยักษ์ฟ้า) or Khun Phi Fa (ขุนผีฝ้า), father of Fa Ngum, was expelled from Muang Sua.^[8]: 8 Fa Ngum accompanied his father into exile at Indaprasthanagara, where he was adopted by Siri Juntarat (ศิริจุนทราช), ruler of Indaprasthanagara, and married Nang Yad Kham (นางหยาดคำ), a daughter of Siri Juntarat. Through this patronage, Fa Ngum subsequently received military support from Siri Juntarat, enabling his campaigns to reunify the Lao muang polities in the mid 14th century, culminating in the establishment of the Lan Xang Kingdom.^[8]: 9

While Lao chronicle emphasizes Indaprasthanagara as a place of political refuge and dynastic patronage, other regional traditions assign it a more overtly cosmological and moral role. Among the extant variants, the Roi Et–Yasothon and the Sisaket versions of the Legend of Phaya Khan Khak [th] makes reference to Indaprasthanagara, whose ruler is identified as King Ekajara (เอกราช),^[7] who is likewise attested in the Ayutthaya Testimonies as the ruler of Muang Sing and is described as belonging to the same royal lineage as Phra Phanom Thale Seri of the Padumasuriyavamsa dynasty.^{[2]: 45–6} According to the narrative, Ekajara had a son afflicted with skin that was rough and pitted, resembling that of a toad, from which he derived the epithet Phraya Khan Khak (lit. 'the Toad King'). Through sustained adherence to the Dharma, the observance of the dasavidha-rājadhamma, and his eventual accession to the throne, his character and physical appearance were transformed and restored to a normal state. The text further relates that this lordly king led a military expedition against King Taen (พญาแถน) of the Mekong basin, a figure depicted as possessing the power to control rainfall, notably by preventing rain from falling over the Mun–Chi basins and Indaprasthanagara for several consecutive years.^[7]

The physical description of Phaya Khan Khak [th] in this legend closely parallels that of the King of Bāla (พาละ), whose formal regnal name is not preserved, as recorded in the Chronicle of Padumasūriyavaṃśa. According to this chronicle, the King of Bāla succeeded his father, Padumasūriyavaṃśa of Indaprasthanagara, in 800 CE. The narrative, however, differs in important respects: whereas Phaya Khan Khak [th] is portrayed as having been born with rough, pitted skin, the King of Bāla is said to have been born with normal skin, which later became rough and pitted as a result of illness, before ultimately being cured by a r̥ṣi. The chronicle further recounts that he achieved military success in wars against a Nāga king, who was his maternal grandfather.^{[3]: 10–3}

Legend of Preah Thong–Neang Neak of Cambodia

Indaprasthanagara is also mentioned in the Khmer's Legend of Preah Thong–Neang Neak. In several narrative variants—some of which parallel the Chronicle of the Padumasūriyavaṃśa—Preah Thong is said to have married Neang Neak, after which the couple founded a new settlement.^[22]: 59 In certain recensions of the legend, this newly established polity is identified as Indaprasthanagara.

Later Cambodian scholars have retrospectively dated this narrative to the Funan period by equating Preah Thong with Kaundinya I, described in Chinese sources as a Brahmin prince from India, and identifying Neang Neak with Soma, the nāga princess associated with the foundation myth of Funan.^[23]: 101

However, the narrative has been interpreted differently by Michael Vickery, who suggested that the Preah Thong–Neang Neak legend may represent a later adaptation of Ayutthayan foundation traditions—particularly the Uthong legend—subsequently incorporated into Cambodian mythology. Vickery drew attention to the linguistic issue that the word "thong" (ทอง), meaning "gold" in Thai, does not appear in Old Khmer prior to the 14th century.^[23]: 101

Identification and location of Indapraṣṭhanagara

Early Thai historiography has frequently identified Indapraṣṭhanagara with Yaśodharapura,^[3][5]: 94 an equation first articulated in the Chronicle of the Padumasūriyavaṃśa, composed in 1932 during the Siamese revolution.^[3] This identification was justified on the grounds that Indapraṣṭhanagara was interpreted as a Sanskritized form of the Cambodian capital name Indrapat, combined with the royal title Indrāditya.^{[24]: 191–2} The equation was subsequently reinforced in later Thai and foreign scholarship, including the 1957 Thai-language recension of the Lan Xang Chronicle^[8]: 8–9 and in Cambodian historography, where it was associated with the toponym sruk indraparāś attested, among others, in several Angkorian inscriptions (e.g., K. 235, K. 259, K. 380). However, the use of the term sruk clearly indicates a lower-level rural administrative unit—such as a village, commune, or district, rather than a royal capital.^[24]: 192

The identification of Indapraṣṭhanagara with Yaśodharapura is also undermined by a fundamental chronological discrepancy. The inferred accession of Padumasūriyavaṃśa in 757 CE^[d] precedes the generally accepted foundation of Yaśodharapura in the late 9th century by nearly two centuries,^[c] while Indapraṣṭhanagara is also mentioned in connection with the reign of Phrom of Yonok, conventionally dated to the 3rd–4th centuries^[9]: 85 of the Shaka era^[25] (4th–5th centuries CE), thereby further complicating the Angkorian identification. This equation has been explicitly challenged by Michael Vickery since 1995; nevertheless, his critique has not been widely accepted within mainstream Thai scholarship.^{[24]: 191–2}

This temporal inconsistency is further compounded by indications that the Tonlé Sap basin during the 8th century was characterized by political fragmentation,^[26]: 6 in contrast to Thai narrative traditions that depict the reign of Padumasūriyavaṃśa as an era of territorial consolidation encompassing polities such as Lavo, Sukhothai, and Talung (เมืองตลุง or ตะลุมดอ).^[3]: 8 Additional contradictions arise from the Legend of Singhanavati, which situates Indapraṣṭhanagara within the Chao Phraya Basin and associates it with the southward retreat of forces defeated by Phrom of Yonok toward the region of present-day Kamphaeng Phet.^[9]: 82

An alternative localization of Indapraṣṭhanagara in the Phraek Si Racha region, east of Sankhaburi, has been proposed on the basis of chronological, textual, and geographical considerations, particularly the geographical indications preserved in the Ayutthaya Testimonies^[2]: 5–6 and related narrative traditions concerning Sri Dharmasokaraja I and his son Sri Dharmasokaraja II.^[4]: 37

Political realignment in the late 12th–early 13th centuries

Re-locating Indapraṣṭhanagara to the Phraek Si Racha region substantially reshapes interpretations of political developments in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. According to the Ayutthaya Testimonies, Sukhothai had long functioned as a tributary polity of Indapraṣṭhanagara, with tribute obligations reportedly maintained since the reign of Padumasūriyavaṃśa.^[3]: 8 The termination of these payments during the reign of Candraraja (r. 1184–1214) marked a rupture in the established political order and precipitated a confrontation that ultimately resulted in Sukhothai’s de facto independence around 1208.^{[2]: 15–6} In this period, Phraek Si Racha corresponds to the re-established polity known as Chen Li Fu,^{[27]: 9, 15 [28]: 20–3} which existed between approximately 1180 and the early 13th century.^{[29]: 1–6} The period of conflict with Sukhothai coincides with the reign of Se-li-Mo-hsi-t’o-pa-lo-hung or Mahīdhāravarman III of Chen Li Fu, whose reign began in 1204/05.^[29]: 7

Notably, Indaprasthanagara and Chen Li Fu both vanished from the historical record during this period, a development that coincided with the Siamese monarch Uthong II’s consolidation of authority over Ayutthaya in 1205, the same year as that of Mahīdhāravarman III. This chronological overlap invites consideration of a possible connection between Uthong II’s father, Phanom Thale Sri–who is said to have married a mixed Champ-Chinese daughter of the Song Emperor–and the previously ruler of Chen Li Fu recorded as Fang-hui-chih, who dispatched an embassy to the Chinese court during a period when it had ceased accepting tributary missions from Southeast Asia states.

Dynastic continuities between Indapraṣṭhanagara, Sukhothai, and Ayutthaya

This reinterpretation also has significant implications for dynastic history. The royal houses of Indapraṣṭhanagara and Sukhothai are described in Ayutthaya Testimonies as belonging to the same lineage,^{[2]: 16–7} while the earlier rulers of the Menam valleys—the Xiū Luó Fēn line—are identified as progenitors of both the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya dynasties.^[f] Moreover, the rulers of Chen Li Fu (previously as Indapraṣṭhanagara) have been tentatively associated with Phimai and the Angkorian Mahidharapura lineage.^[27]: 6 Under this framework, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Angkor, and Indapraṣṭhanagara (identified with Xiū Luó Fēn and later Chen Li Fu) emerge not as isolated or antagonistic polities but as interconnected entities linked through dynastic alliances.

These proposed dynastic relationships also illuminate accounts of the defeats suffered by Xiū Luó Fēn rulers at the hands of Sri Dharmasokaraja II in 1157 (in the Lavo region) and again in 1167 (in the Phraek Si Racha region). During this period, two Xiū Luó Fēn princes are recorded as retreating northward into the upper Menam basin. Suryaraja, identified as the grandfather of Si Intharathit, established authority in the area of modern Kamphaeng Phet,^[2]: 11 while Pra Poa Noome Thele Seri consolidated power in the Sukhothai–Nakhon Thai region.^{[14][13]: 127} These movements form part of the longue durée processes that culminated in the emergence of the Sukhothai Kingdom in the 13th century. Following the decline of Xiū Luó Fēn authority, Angkor under Jayavarman VII intervened militarily and successfully captured Lavo in 1180.^[4]: 39 In the same year, former Siamese ruling house led by Fang-hui-chih or Pra Poa Noome Thele Seri—likely allied with the Mahidharapura dynasty^[27]: 6—seized control of Phraek Si Racha from Sri Dharmasokaraja II and re-established the polity as Chen Li Fu.^[29]: 18 Moreover, in that same year, Pra Poa Noome Thele Seri—whose paternal territory had previously been lost to Sri Dharmasokaraja II—is recorded in the Legend of Nakhon Si Thammarat as having attempted to invade Tambralinga, which by that time constituted the only remaining dominion of Sri Dharmasokaraja II following his defeat in the Menam Basin by Angkor.^[4]: 41

Evidence for such alliances is further suggested by the recorded marriage between Pha Mueang of Sukhothai and Princess Sukhara Mahādevī, a relative of the Angkorian monarch Jayavarman VII;^[31] by depictions of Xiān (Siamese) mercenaries in Angkor Wat reliefs;^[32]: 70 by the presence of large numbers of Siamese people in the Angkorian capital of Yasodharapura in the 13th century, as recorded by the Chinese envoy Zhou Daguan;^[33][34] and by the dispatch of several Buddha images for installation in polities of the Menam basin by Jayavarman VII, as attested in the Preah Khan inscription (K.908).^[35]: 58 Additional indications include a week-long religious observance undertaken after 1188 by the Siamese monarch Pra Poa Noome Thele Seri at Lavapura of Lavo,^[2]: 47 which was under Angkor control at the time mentioned,^[4]: 39 and the accession of his descendant, Uthong II, to rule over Ayodhya in 1205,^[36] which earlier was under Chen Li Fu,^[g] without any recorded conflict. Within this interpretive framework, figures such as Khom Sabat Khlon Lamphong—previously portrayed as Angkorian officials who usurped Sri Naw Nam Thum of Sukhothai—may instead represent rival ruler aligned with a competing political faction rather than agent of Angkor. This interpretation aligns with recent scholarship, which suggests that the early polities of Sukhothai and Angkor were linked through dynastic alliances rather than characterized by the rivalry traditionally assumed in earlier historiography.^{[37]: 58 [38]}

Reassessing the Legend of Nakhon Si Thammarat and Pagan intervention

The identification of Indapraṣṭhanagara with Phraek Si Racha, when considered alongside proposed dynastic connections between Siamese and Angkorian monarchs, provides a contextual framework for reassessing an alternative version of the Legend of Nakhon Si Thammarat [th]. In this version of the narrative, Sri Dharmasokaraja I—the father of Sri Dharmasokaraja II—is depicted as a foreign monarch who exercised political authority over the Phraek Si Racha–Lavo region prior to his southward relocation.^[4]: 37 The legend further relates that Sri Dharmasokaraja I, whose origins are traced to Hanthawaddy^[20]: 28 under Pagan suzerainty at the time,^[39]: 33 established a royal center at Indapraṣṭhanagara and governed the surrounding Menam basin.^{[4]: 37–40 [20]: 28} According to the same account, following a severe epidemic in 1117, he abandoned Indapraṣṭhanagara and transferred his power base to Nakhon Si Thammarat, which he had earlier re-founded in 1077.^[4]: 37

This Pagan invasion corresponds closely with descriptions in the Northern Chronicle concerning the events during the late Dvaravati, including the expansion of Pagan influence into the Menam basin during the period from the 1050s to 1080s, the establishment of Pagan noble Kar Tayy (r. c. 1081–1121) authority in Suphannaphum,^[18]: 60 and the reported invasion of Ayodhya in 1087, which resulted in the death of King Narai I^{[18]: 40–2 [36]} and a subsequent two-year interregnum before the accession of Phra Chao Luang, a ruler of uncertain origin.^{[18]: 41–2} The reported northward relocation of the Xiū Luó Fēn ruler Surindraraja (r. 1062–1100) from Phraek Si Racha to Chai Nat during this same period^[2]: 41 further reinforces the interpretation of these developments as interconnected consequences of regional upheaval and external intervention.

The aforementioned local records of Pagan penetration into the Menam valley from the 11th to the late 12th century are consistent with the early 13th-century Chinese text Zhu Fan Zhi, which notes that Chenla bordered Pagan to the west.^[40]: 99 These narratives align with Burmese historiographical traditions, which record that during the reign of Anawrahta of Pagan (r. 1044–1077), Pagan engaged in a series of military conflicts with Angkor and is even said, in some accounts, to have temporarily seized Angkor itself.^[39]: 34 They further accord with the scholarly interpretation that the phase of Tambralinga corresponding to the reign of Sri Dharmasokaraja I, followed by those of his successors—Sri Dharmasokaraja II and Sri Dharmasokaraja III—likely represented a period of Pagan suzerainty over Tambralinga, extending from the mid-11th century to the early 13th century.^{[41]: 89–90 [42]: 61}

Lan Xang historiographical debates