Jakarta

Early settlements and Sunda Kelapa

The area that now forms Jakarta has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Archaeological evidence from the Buni culture, which flourished on the north coast of western Java between roughly 400 BC and 100 AD,^[16] indicates early settlements in the region. By the 4th century, the area formed part of the Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, one of the earliest Hindu kingdoms in the archipelago. The Tugu inscription, discovered in present-day North Jakarta and dated to around 417 AD, records hydraulic projects undertaken by King Purnawarman, including irrigation and river management works along the Chandrabhaga and Gomati rivers near the kingdom’s capital.^[17]

Following the decline of Tarumanagara, the region became part of the Kingdom of Sunda. From the 7th to the early 13th centuries, the port of Sunda Kelapa developed into an important trading centre connected to regional maritime networks. Chinese records such as the Chu-fan-chi, written in the early 13th century, describe the port as a prosperous trading hub under the Srivijaya maritime empire^[18][19] and note that high-quality pepper from Sunda was among its major exports. By the 14th century Sunda Kelapa had become the principal port of the Sunda Kingdom, supporting trade across Southeast Asia.

European involvement in the region began in the early 16th century when Portuguese ships from Malacca arrived in 1513 while searching for new spice routes.^[20] In 1522, the Sunda Kingdom concluded an alliance with Portugal, granting permission for the construction of a trading post in order to counter the growing power of the Demak Sultanate in central Java.^[12] The arrangement was short-lived, however. In 1527, forces from Demak led by the military commander Fatahillah captured Sunda Kelapa and expelled the Portuguese. The port was renamed Jayakarta^[12] and later became a possession of the Banten Sultanate, developing into a significant regional trading centre.

Batavia under Dutch rule

Conflict between Prince Jayawikarta of the Banten Sultanate and the Dutch East India Company (VOC) eventually led to the establishment of Dutch control over the city. In 1619, Dutch forces under Jan Pieterszoon Coen captured and destroyed Jayakarta, defeating both Jayawikarta’s troops and their English allies. The Dutch subsequently established a fortified colonial city on the site and renamed it Batavia,^{[citation needed]} which became the administrative centre of the Dutch East Indies.

Batavia developed into a major trading hub within the Dutch colonial empire. Commercial activity attracted migrants from across Asia, including Chinese, Arab, and other trading communities. Rapid population growth, however, also produced social tensions. In 1740, a revolt by Chinese residents led to a violent suppression in which thousands were killed, after which Chinese inhabitants were relocated to the Glodok district outside the city walls.^[21] Over time, Batavia continued to expand as trade increased^[22] and new immigrant communities settled in the city.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the city expanded southward as epidemics and overcrowding in the old port district encouraged new residential developments further inland. Urban planning projects created new districts such as Menteng, developed in the 1910s as a planned residential suburb,^[23] while Kebayoran Baru became one of the last major residential areas constructed during the late colonial period.^[21] Dutch colonial rule ended in March 1942 when Japanese forces captured the city during the Second World War and renamed it Jakarta (Jakarta Special City (ジャカルタ特別市, Jakaruta tokubetsu-shi), marking the beginning of a new phase in the city’s history.

Jakarta in independent Indonesia

Following the end of the Second World War, Indonesian nationalists proclaimed independence on 17 August 1945.^[24] In the following month, the administration of the city was reorganised as the Jakarta National Administration. During the Indonesian National Revolution, however, Indonesian republican leaders withdrew from Allied-occupied Jakarta and established their temporary capital in Yogyakarta. After the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian independence in December 1949, Jakarta resumed its role as the national capital in 1950.^[21]

During the presidency of Sukarno, Jakarta was transformed into the symbolic capital of the new nation. Preparations for the 1962 Asian Games prompted large-scale urban development projects that reshaped the city. Major infrastructure and architectural projects included the construction of the National Monument, the Hotel Indonesia complex, new shopping centres, major boulevards such as Jalan MH Thamrin-Sudirman, and the Senayan sports complex. Sukarno envisioned Jakarta as a modern international city that would represent Indonesia’s independence and national identity.^[25]

Political tensions reached a turning point in October 1965 when an attempted coup resulted in the killing of six senior army generals, triggering a nationwide anti-communist purge that killed hundreds of thousands of people, and marking the beginning of Suharto's New Order. In 1966, Jakarta was formally designated a Special Capital Region (Daerah Khusus Ibukota, DKI) with administrative status equivalent to a province.^[26][27] During the governorship of Ali Sadikin (1966–1977), the city experienced major urban reforms,^[28] including infrastructure improvements, the expansion of hospitals and schools, and cultural development programmes, although large-scale redevelopment projects also displaced many informal settlements.^[29]

Jakarta continued to expand rapidly during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Foreign investment during the late New Order period fuelled a major real estate boom,^[30] although this growth was interrupted by the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which led to political unrest and riots in 1998 that led to the resignation of President Suharto.^[31][32][33] In the period that followed, Jakarta remained the centre of Indonesia’s political life and reforms,^[34] including the introduction of direct gubernatorial elections in 2007.^[35] The city has also experienced sporadic terrorist attacks since the early 2000s. More recently, the Indonesian government announced plans to relocate the national capital to Nusantara,^[36][37][38] although Jakarta continues to function as the country’s primary political and economic centre.^[39]

Climate

Jakarta has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen: Am), bordering on a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: Af). The city experiences a long wet season from October to May and a relatively drier season from June to September, although rainfall occurs throughout the year. The heaviest precipitation typically occurs in January and February, when monthly rainfall averages nearly 300 millimetres, while August is usually the driest month.^[50]

Seasonal weather patterns contribute to recurring flooding in Jakarta. During the wet season, strong monsoon winds and atmospheric circulation over western Java can intensify rainfall and increase river discharge flowing into the city. Combined with Jakarta’s low-lying geography and dense urban development, these conditions can lead to periodic floods and severe thunderstorms.^[51]

Temperatures in Jakarta remain consistently warm throughout the year, with daytime averages typically around 32 °C (89.6 °F) and nighttime temperatures around 24 °C (75.2 °F). Average monthly temperatures vary only slightly, ranging from about 27 °C (80.6 °F) in the coolest months to around 28 °C (82.4 °F) in the warmest months. Recorded extremes range from about 18.9 °C (66.0 °F) to 37.9 °C (100.2 °F).^[52]

Architecture

Jakarta contains architecturally significant buildings representing a wide range of historical and cultural influences. Architectural styles in the city reflect Malay, Sundanese, Javanese, Arab, Chinese, and Dutch traditions. Traditional Betawi houses, associated with the indigenous Betawi community, illustrate this mixture of influences. These houses were typically constructed using nangka wood (Artocarpus heterophyllus) and commonly consisted of three main rooms. Their roof forms often resemble the traditional Javanese joglo, while features such as wide eaves, large openings, and open layouts were well suited to the tropical climate. The number of officially registered cultural heritage buildings in Jakarta has increased in recent decades as preservation efforts have expanded.^[59]

Many historic structures date from the Dutch colonial era, when Batavia served as the administrative centre of the Dutch East Indies. Colonial architecture can generally be divided into three broad phases: the Dutch Golden Age style (17th to late 18th century), a transitional architectural period during the late 18th and 19th centuries, and Dutch modernist architecture of the early 20th century. These buildings include residences, churches, government offices, and commercial structures, many of which remain concentrated in Jakarta Old Town and parts of Central Jakarta. Architects such as J.C. Schultze and Eduard Cuypers designed several notable buildings in the city. Schultze’s works include the Jakarta Art Building, the Supreme Court Building, and the Ministry of Finance Building, while Cuypers designed the Bank Indonesia Museum and Mandiri Museum.

During the early 20th century, architectural styles began to shift toward rationalist and modernist influences, including Art Deco architecture. The Menteng district, developed in the 1910s as a planned residential suburb, represented one of the earliest attempts to create a modern and healthy residential environment for the middle class. Houses in the area were designed with features suited to the tropical climate, including large windows, open ventilation, and overhanging eaves.^[60]

Post-Indonesian independence architecture in Jakarta reflected the political and cultural priorities of nation-building. Major infrastructure projects were constructed, particularly during the Sukarno era, including the National Monument and the Senayan Sports Stadium, and a network of arterial roads that helped reshape the city’s urban landscape. The national parliament building, with its distinctive hyperbolic roof, illustrates modernist architectural influences associated with mid-20th century international design. In the 21st century, Jakarta has experienced a rapid urban construction boom, particularly in the Golden Triangle central business district, alongside the rise in skyscrapers.^[61][62]

Panorama of Jakarta as seen from the Monas in a full 360-degree view (river flowing from south-west to north-east, left to right)

Parks and public spaces

Public parks and green open spaces form an important component of Jakarta’s urban landscape. In June 2011, the city had about 10.5% green open space (ruang terbuka hijau, RTH), which had increased to approximately 13.94% in subsequent years as the municipal government expanded park development and environmental programmes. As part of these efforts, the city has created hundreds of child-friendly integrated public spaces (RPTRA), with about 300 such facilities operating by 2019.^[63][64] In addition to parks, reservoirs and lakes—numbering more than 180 in the wider metropolitan area—also contribute to Jakarta’s environmental infrastructure and flood management system.^[65]

One of the most prominent public spaces in the city is Merdeka Square (Medan Merdeka) in Central Jakarta, a nearly one-square-kilometre open field surrounding the National Monument (Monas). Originally developed in the early nineteenth century under Dutch colonial administration as Koningsplein, the square was later redesigned and beautified, including the addition of landscaped areas and symbolic plantings representing Indonesia’s provinces.^[66] Another important historical square is Lapangan Banteng, located near Istiqlal Mosque and Jakarta Cathedral. The site served ceremonial functions during the colonial period and now features the West Irian Liberation Monument.^[67]

Jakarta also contains numerous urban parks distributed across the city. Suropati Park in Menteng is known for its landscaped gardens and sculptures created by artists from ASEAN countries,^[68] while nearby Menteng Park and Situ Lembang Park provide recreational spaces in central residential districts. In Jakarta, parks such as GBK Park, Tebet Eco Park, Ayodya Park, and Setu Babakan serve as important neighbourhood green spaces.^[69] More recent developments include Kalijodo Park in North Jakarta, opened in 2017 with recreational facilities including a skateboard park.^[70]

Several larger recreational and environmental areas are also located within the city. Ragunan Zoo in South Jakarta is one of the oldest zoos in the world and one of the largest urban parks in the city.^[71] Other natural areas include the Muara Angke Wildlife Sanctuary and the Angke Kapuk Nature Tourism Park in North Jakarta.^[72] Cultural and recreational complexes such as Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, which features pavilions representing Indonesia’s provinces, also function as major public attractions and green spaces. UI Forest serves as a significant natural reserve and vital ecological area within Jakarta, spanning approximately 100 hectares (250 acres) to provide a sanctuary for over 180 plant species and diverse animal populations.

Ethnicity

Jakarta is a highly diverse city and does not have a single majority ethnic group. According to the 2010 census, the largest ethnic group in the city was Javanese, accounting for about 36.17% of the population, followed by Betawi (28.29%), Sundanese (14.61%), Chinese Indonesians (6.62%), and Batak (3.42%).^{[86][failed verification]} Other communities include Minangkabau, Malays, Madurese, Bugis, Indians, Indo people, and many others from across the Indonesian archipelago.

The Betawi (Orang Betawi), regarded as the indigenous population of Jakarta, developed from the diverse communities that lived in Batavia during the colonial period. They emerged as a distinct ethnic group by the mid-19th century, largely descended from a mixture of Southeast Asian peoples who were brought to or settled in the city to meet labour needs.^[87] Over time, Betawi culture incorporated influences from many groups, including Chinese, Arab, and European communities.^[88] Many Betawi communities historically lived in areas on the fringes of the colonial city, and today Betawi populations are spread throughout the Jakarta metropolitan area.^[89] Because of long-standing patterns of migration and intermarriage with other ethnic groups, Betawi identity often reflects a combination of cultural influences within the city.

Jakarta has also long had a significant Chinese population. Their communities traditionally lived in older urban districts such as Glodok, and parts of Senen and Jatinegara, although today they are distributed more widely throughout the city. Estimates in the early 2000s suggested that Chinese Indonesians accounted for roughly 5–6 percent of Jakarta’s population.^[90] Smaller but historically established communities of Indians have also lived in Jakarta for centuries, many of them historically associated with the Pasar Baru district, sometimes referred to as Jakarta’s "Little India."^[91]

Migration from other regions of Indonesia has significantly shaped Jakarta’s modern demographics. Large communities of Batak, Minangkabau, and Malay migrants from Sumatra live in the city. According to the 2020 census, Jakarta had approximately 361,000 Batak residents, about 300,960 Minangkabau, and around 101,370 Malays. Toba Batak constitute the largest Batak subgroup in Jakarta,^[92] while Minangkabau migrants have historically been prominent in trade and professional occupations within the city.^[93][94]

Language

Indonesian is the official and dominant language of Jakarta and is widely used in government, education, business, and everyday communication. English is also commonly used, particularly in Central and South Jakarta,^[95] where many international businesses and expatriate communities are located. Many residents of Jakarta continue to use their ethnic languages within families and community settings. The Betawi language, associated with the indigenous Betawi community, is a Malay-based creole that developed through centuries of contact among different cultural groups in the city. It incorporates vocabulary from Dutch, Portuguese, Sundanese, Javanese, Chinese, and Arabic. Over time, many Betawi expressions and phrases have entered colloquial Indonesian and are widely used as part of Jakarta’s urban slang.

Chinese Indonesians in Jakarta today mainly speak Indonesian and English, although older generations may also speak Chinese dialects such as Hokkien and other varieties depending on their family background. Migration from Chinese communities in other parts of Indonesia has also introduced dialects such as Hakka, Teochew, and Cantonese into the city’s Chinese community. Hokkien is commonly spoken among residents with roots in Sumatra, particularly in northern districts such as Pantai Indah Kapuk and Pluit, while Hakka and Teochew are often associated with communities originating from West Kalimantan.

Other regional languages of Indonesia are also spoken by migrant communities. Batak residents may speak languages such as Toba Batak, Mandailing, or Karo, while Minangkabau migrants often use the Minangkabau language alongside Indonesian. Sundanese, historically associated with the surrounding region of West Java, is still used by some local communities in Jakarta. It continues to be spoken in several neighbourhoods, particularly in parts of East Jakarta such as Pondok Ranggon and Jatinegara Kaum, where local varieties including Bogor Sundanese^[96] and Banten Sundanese^[97] are maintained by long-established residents.

Education

Jakarta is one of Indonesia's principal centres of higher education and hosts numerous universities and research institutions. The University of Indonesia (UI), the country's largest and one of its oldest universities, maintains campuses in Salemba in Central Jakarta and in nearby Depok.^[98] Other public universities located in the city include Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta and the State University of Jakarta (UNJ).^[99]

The city is also home to many private universities and colleges. Major institutions include Trisakti University, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Bina Nusantara University, and several others. Vocational higher education institutions, such as Jakarta State Polytechnic, also operate in the city. Modern higher education in Jakarta traces its origins to STOVIA (School tot Opleiding van Indische Artsen), established in 1851 during the Dutch colonial era to train indigenous physicians.^[100] Today Jakarta attracts students from across Indonesia, many of whom reside in dormitories, rented accommodation, or home-stay residences while pursuing their studies.

For primary and secondary education, Jakarta offers a wide range of public and private schools, including bilingual and international institutions. Several international schools operate in the Jakarta metropolitan area, such as the Jakarta Intercultural School, Australian Independent School,^[101] and the French School Jakarta, among others.

Religion

Religion plays an important role in Jakarta's social and cultural life. As of 2024, Islam is the dominant religion in the city , followed by Protestantism, Catholicism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism (1%), with small numbers of residents adhering to other faiths or traditional belief systems.^[102]

Islamic educational and religious institutions are widely present in the city. Many pesantren (Islamic boarding schools) in Jakarta are affiliated with the traditionalist organisation Nahdlatul Ulama (NU),^[103] while modernist Islamic institutions serve urban communities through educational and social programmes.^[104] Several major Islamic organisations, including the NU, Muhammadiyah, the Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI), and the Indonesia Institute of Islamic Dawah, maintain headquarters in Jakarta.

Christian communities form the second-largest religious group in the city. The Roman Catholic Church is administered by the Archdiocese of Jakarta, which forms part of an ecclesiastical province that also includes West Java and Banten. Protestant denominations are represented by numerous churches throughout the city. Jakarta also has significant Buddhist communities, many of whom are Chinese Indonesians. Various traditions of Buddhism are practised in the city, including Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Tridharma. Smaller religious communities include Hindus—mainly of Balinese and Indian origin—as well as Sikh and Baháʼí communities.^[105]

Shopping

Jakarta is one of Southeast Asia’s largest retail centres and is known for its extensive network of shopping malls and traditional markets. As of the mid-2010s, the city had one of the largest total shopping mall floor areas among cities worldwide.^[116][117] Major shopping centres are concentrated in commercial districts such as Central Jakarta and South Jakarta, where large complexes including Sarinah, Grand Indonesia and Plaza Senayan serve as prominent retail and entertainment hubs.

In addition to modern malls, Jakarta maintains a long tradition of traditional markets (pasar), which continue to play an important role in the city’s retail economy. Well-known markets such as Tanah Abang, Pasar Baru, and Glodok sell a wide variety of textiles, clothing, household goods, and food products. Some markets specialise in particular items, including antique goods sold along Jalan Surabaya and gemstones traded at Rawabening Market.^[118]

Tourism

Although Jakarta is not traditionally considered Indonesia’s primary international tourist destination, the city functions as the country’s primary gateway and an important urban tourism centre. Many international visitors pass through Jakarta while travelling to other Indonesian destinations such as Bali, the Komodo Island, and Yogyakarta. In 2023, approximately 1.97 million foreign tourists visited the city,^[119] while domestic tourism accounts for a large share of overall visitor numbers.

International tourism rankings have identified Jakarta as a rapidly growing destination. According to the MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index^[120], the city was among the fastest-growing tourism destinations in the world, while the World Travel and Tourism Council has also classified Jakarta as an emerging tourism market with strong projected growth in visitor arrivals.^[121] Euromonitor International’s 2019 ranking placed Jakarta among the 100 most visited cities globally.^[122]

The city government has sought to expand tourism through the development of meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions (MICE) tourism,^[123][124] as well as through cultural festivals and large international events. The tourism sector contributes to Jakarta’s economy and municipal revenue, stemming from the city’s role as Indonesia’s principal commercial and transportation hub.

Arts and festivals

Jakarta’s artistic and cultural life is closely linked to Betawi culture, the traditional culture of the city’s indigenous community. Betawi culture developed through centuries of interaction among Malay, Sundanese, Javanese, Chinese, Arab, Indian, and European influences, producing distinctive traditions in language, music, cuisine, and ceremonial practices. Chinese cultural influence is particularly visible in Betawi festivals, wedding traditions, and culinary customs.

Efforts to preserve and promote Betawi arts and traditions are reflected in several community festivals held in different parts of the city,^{[125][126][127]} including the Jalan Jaksa Festival, Condet Festival, and Lebaran Betawi. Cultural traditions are also maintained through local celebrations such as the Sedekah Bumi Keramat Ganceng Festival in Pondok Ranggon.^[128] These events often feature traditional music, dance performances, and exhibitions of Betawi cultural heritage.

Jakarta has numerous venues dedicated to performing arts and cultural exhibitions. Major cultural centres include the Taman Ismail Marzuki arts complex in Cikini, Gedung Kesenian Jakarta near Pasar Baru, and Aula Simfonia Jakarta in Kemayoran. Other venues such as Balai Sarbini, Bentara Budaya Jakarta, and the Pasar Seni art market in Ancol host exhibitions, concerts, and theatrical performances. Traditional Indonesian performing arts, including wayang puppet theatre and gamelan music, are regularly staged in various venues across the city, including the Wayang Orang Bharata Theatre and cultural pavilions at Taman Mini Indonesia Indah.

The city also hosts numerous cultural festivals and exhibitions throughout the year. These include film events such as the Jakarta International Film Festival (JiFFest), as well as large cultural gatherings such as Jakarta Fashion Week, the Jakarta Fashion & Food Festival, and the Jakarta Fair. Other major events include the Indonesia International Book Fair, Indonesia Comic Con, and Art Jakarta, an annual contemporary art fair. The Jakarta International Java Jazz Festival, held each year in March, is one of the largest jazz festivals in the world.

Jakarta’s cultural landscape is further enriched by the presence of international cultural centres that promote language and the arts. Institutions such as the French Institut Français d'Indonésie, the German Goethe Institut, the Japan Foundation, the British Council and the Dutch Erasmus Huis organise exhibitions, performances, and educational programmes that contribute to the city’s cosmopolitan cultural environment.

Cuisine

Jakarta’s culinary culture reflects the city’s long history as a meeting point of diverse ethnic and cultural influences. While dishes from across Indonesia are widely available in the capital, the traditional local cuisine is Betawi cuisine, which developed among the Betawi people and incorporates influences from Malay-Chinese Peranakan cuisine, Sundanese, Javanese, Indian, Arab, and European culinary traditions. One of the best-known Betawi dishes is Soto Betawi, a rich soup made with beef and offal cooked in a spiced broth of coconut milk or cow’s milk. Other traditional dishes include ketoprak, rujak, and Betawi-style gado-gado.

As Indonesia’s largest city, Jakarta is also known for its vibrant street food culture. Food travelling vendors and small roadside eateries (warung) serve a wide variety of dishes throughout the city, ranging from common Indonesian foods such as nasi goreng (fried rice), sate (skewered meats), and bakso (meatballs) to snacks such as bakpau (Chinese bun) and siomay (fish dumplings). Culinary traditions from other Indonesian regions are also strongly represented; for example, Padang restaurants serving Minangkabau cuisine and warteg (short for warung tegal) food stalls offering inexpensive home-style meals are widespread in Jakarta.^[129]

Several districts of the city are known for their concentrations of street food stalls, restaurants, and cafés, including areas such as Sabang Street, Blok M, and Kota Tua.^{[130][131][132]} Chinese culinary traditions are especially prominent in parts of West Jakarta, particularly around Glodok and Mangga Besar, while the Blok M area has developed a reputation for Japanese restaurants and nightlife venues.^[133] The city government has also established organised food courts such as Lenggang Jakarta and Thamrin 10, which provide spaces for small vendors and street-food traders.^[134][135]

Jakarta’s dining scene ranges from modest street vendors to upscale restaurants and international chains.^[136] Local restaurant brands such as Bakmi GM, D'Cost, Es Teler 77 and Sederhana operate alongside global fast-food outlets in shopping centres across the city.^[137] Owing to Jakarta’s cosmopolitan population, restaurants serving international cuisines—including Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Indian, Turkish, Middle Eastern, American, European, and other Asian cuisines—are widely available throughout the capital.

Sports

Jakarta International Stadium at Tanjung Priok. It is the home of Persija F.C. and has a seating capacity of 82,000. It is Indonesia's biggest stadium.

Gelora Bung Karno Stadium, home of the Indonesia Indonesia national football team, has a seating capacity of 78,000. It is Indonesia's second-biggest stadium.

Istora Gelora Bung Karno, home of the Indonesia national badminton team, has a capacity of 8,000 seats.

Indonesia Arena, is the fields that can be used for Basketball, Volleyball, and Badminton

Jakarta has hosted numerous major international sporting events and serves as one of Indonesia’s principal centres for sport. The city hosted the 1962 Asian Games,^[138] and co-hosted the 2018 Asian Games with Palembang.^[139] It has also hosted the Southeast Asian Games several times, including in 1979, 1987, 1997, and 2011. Major football tournaments have also taken place in the city; the Gelora Bung Karno Stadium was one of the venues for the 2007 AFC Asian Cup, hosting group-stage matches as well as the quarter-final and final.^{[140][141][142]} Following the success of the 2018 Asian Games, Jakarta submitted a bid to host the 2032 Summer Olympics, although the Games were ultimately awarded to Brisbane.

The city contains several large sporting venues and complexes. The Gelora Bung Karno Sports Complex in Senayan is Jakarta’s main sporting hub and includes facilities for football, athletics, aquatic sports, tennis, and indoor arena sports. Other major venues include the Jakarta International Stadium, a retractable-roof football stadium completed in 2022, the Jakarta International Velodrome in Rawamangun,^[143] and the Jakarta International Equestrian Park in Pulomas, both of which were developed or renovated for the 2018 Asian Games.^[144] Indoor arenas such as the BritAma Arena and facilities in Kelapa Gading are also used for national basketball competitions and other sporting events.

Football is the most popular sport in Jakarta. The city’s main professional club is Persija, which competes in Indonesia’s top football league, Liga 1, while Persitara plays in the lower-tier Liga 3. Jakarta also hosts large-scale sporting events such as the Jakarta Marathon, established in 2013 and recognised by international athletics organisations, attracting thousands of participants from many countries each year.^[145][146]

In addition to professional sports, recreational and community sporting activities are common in the city. One well-known example is the Jakarta Car-Free Day, held regularly on major central avenues such as Jalan Sudirman and Jalan Thamrin, when sections of the roads are closed to motor vehicles. During these events, residents participate in activities such as jogging, cycling, aerobics, and other outdoor sports.^[147] Jakarta has also hosted international motorsport events, including the Formula E Jakarta ePrix, first held in 2022 at the Ancol Circuit, North Jakarta.^[148]

Media and entertainment

Jakarta is the centre of Indonesia’s national media industry and hosts most of the country’s major newspapers, broadcasters, and publishing companies. Several national newspapers are based in the city, including Kompas and Media Indonesia, while local newspapers such as Pos Kota and Warta Kota focus primarily on news and events within the capital. A number of specialised publications are also produced in Jakarta, including business newspapers such as Bisnis Indonesia and Investor Daily, as well as the sports newspaper Super Ball.

The city is also home to several newspapers published in foreign languages for national and international audiences. English-language publications include The Jakarta Post and the online news outlet The Jakarta Globe. Chinese-language newspapers such as Harian Indonesia (印尼星洲日报), and Guoji Ribao (国际日报) circulate among the Indonesian Chinese community, while the Japanese-language newspaper The Daily Jakarta Shimbun (じゃかるた新聞) serves Japanese readers in Indonesia.

Radio broadcasting remains an important part of Jakarta’s media landscape. Dozens of stations operate in the metropolitan area, including both public and private networks. National radio networks based in Jakarta include Prambors FM, Hard Rock FM, and Delta FM, while public broadcasting services are provided by Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI). Local stations such as Gen FM and Radio Elshinta also broadcast from the city.

Jakarta is likewise the headquarters of Indonesia’s public television broadcaster TVRI and several private national television networks, including Metro TV, tvOne, Kompas TV, and RCTI. The city also has local television stations such as TVRI Jakarta, JakTV, and Elshinta TV. In recent years, Indonesia has begun transitioning from analogue broadcasting to digital television using the DVB-T2 standard as part of a nationwide digital migration programme.^[149]

Public safety

Public safety in Jakarta is primarily the responsibility of the Greater Jakarta Metropolitan Regional Police (Polda Metro Jaya), which oversees law enforcement across the Jakarta metropolitan area. It is led by a two-star police general (Kapolda Metro Jaya). The Indonesian Army, led by a Major General (Pangdam Jaya), also maintains a regional command in the city, the Jayakarta Military Regional Command (Kodam Jaya), which functions as part of the national defence structure and supports security operations in coordination with civilian authorities when required.

Municipal finances

Jakarta’s provincial government relies heavily on transfers from the national government for much of its revenue. Locally generated income is derived mainly from taxes, including vehicle ownership and vehicle transfer fees.^[152] Despite significant fiscal resources, the provincial administration often records budget surpluses—typically between 15 and 20 percent of planned spending—largely due to delays in procurement and other administrative inefficiencies.^[153][154]

Public expenditure has prioritised sectors such as education, transportation infrastructure, flood control, environmental management, and social services including healthcare and housing.^[155] Jakarta’s regional budget (Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Daerah, APBD) has grown steadily in recent years, reaching approximately Rp77.1 trillion in 2017, Rp83.2 trillion in 2018, and Rp89 trillion in 2019.^{[156][157][158]}

Administrative divisions

Jakarta is divided into five administrative cities (Kota Administratif) and one administrative regency (Kabupaten Administratif), each headed by a mayor or regent. Unlike other Indonesian municipalities, these administrative divisions do not have their own local legislatures and remain directly subordinate to the provincial government of Jakarta. Each administrative city is further divided into districts (Kecamatan).

The five administrative cities are Central Jakarta, West Jakarta, South Jakarta, East Jakarta, and North Jakarta, while the Thousand Islands (Kepulauan Seribu) form the province’s sole administrative regency.^[159] Central Jakarta is the smallest of the municipalities and serves as the political and administrative centre of the capital, containing major national landmarks such as the National Monument (Monas), Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta Cathedral, and several national museums.^[160]

West Jakarta has a high concentration of small-scale industries and contains parts of Jakarta Old Town,^[161] including Dutch colonial era buildings such as Toko Merah and structures displaying Chinese architectural influence. South Jakarta, originally planned as a satellite city, has developed into an important commercial and affluent residential area, hosting major shopping centres and parts of Jakarta’s central business district, including the Golden Triangle around Kebayoran Baru and Setiabudi.^[162]

East Jakarta is characterised by large industrial zones^[163] and several major facilities, including Taman Mini Indonesia Indah and Halim Perdanakusuma Airport. North Jakarta borders the Java Sea and contains the Port of Tanjung Priok, Indonesia’s busiest seaport, as well as the Ancol Dreamland tourism complex.^[164] The Thousand Islands regency consists of more than one hundred small islands in the Java Sea and is known for its marine ecosystems and tourism activities such as diving and island recreation.

Transportation

Various means of public transport in Jakarta; from top up to down: KRL Commuterline, Jakarta MRT, Jabodebek LRT, Soekarno–Hatta Airport Rail Link, Jakarta LRT, and Transjakarta

Transportation in Jakarta reflects the scale and density of the Greater Jakarta metropolitan area, which has a population of more than 40 million.^[170] Although the city historically prioritized road development to accommodate private vehicles,^[171] recent policies have increasingly focused on expanding public transportation and improving mobility. Jakarta received the 2021 Global Sustainable Transport Award in recognition of efforts to integrate its public transit system,^[172] though transport infrastructure continues to grapple with keeping pace with population growth.^[173][174]

Road transport remains dominant in the city. Jakarta’s road system includes an extensive toll road network consisting of inner and outer ring roads and several radial expressways connecting the city with surrounding regions. Traffic congestion has long remained a significant problem,^[175] and policies such as the "odd–even" vehicle restriction system have been introduced to limit road use by private cars on certain days as a transitional measure before the planned implementation of electronic road pricing.

Public transportation has expanded significantly since the 2010s and now includes several mass transit systems serving the wider metropolitan area. These include the TransJakarta bus rapid transit system, the Jakarta MRT and LRT, the KRL Commuterline suburban railway, and the Soekarno–Hatta Airport Rail Link. Transit-oriented developments such as Dukuh Atas and CSW–ASEAN have been built to improve integration between different transport modes. By 2023, public transport services covered approximately 86% of the city, with a target of reaching 95%.

Jakarta is served by several major transportation hubs. Soekarno–Hatta International Airport is the main gateway for air travel to the Greater Jakarta region, while Halim Perdanakusuma Airport handles limited domestic and private flights. The city’s principal seaport is Tanjung Priok, Indonesia’s busiest port, which connects Jakarta with other parts of the archipelago. Smaller ports such as Sunda Kelapa and Muara Angke^[176] support traditional shipping and ferry services, including connections to the Thousand Islands.

Healthcare

Jakarta has an extensive healthcare system consisting of both public and private facilities. In 2012, then Jakarta Governor Joko Widodo introduced the 'Healthy Jakarta Card' (Kartu Jakarta Sehat, KJS),^[177] a regional universal healthcare programme aimed at expanding access to medical services for residents. In January 2014, the Indonesian government launched a nationwide universal healthcare system known as the 'National Health Insurance' (Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional, JKN), administered by the Social Security Agency on Health (BPJS Kesehatan).^[178] The Jakarta programme was later integrated into the national scheme,^[179] and KJS cards remained valid until 2018.^[180] As of 2021, approximately 85.55% of Jakarta's population was covered by the JKN programme.^[181]

Public healthcare facilities in the city include major government-run hospitals such as the Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital, Gatot Soebroto Army Hospital, as well as community hospitals and local public health centres (puskesmas). While public hospitals generally provide a good standard of care, they are often overcrowded due to high demand. Private hospitals and clinics also play an important role in Jakarta’s healthcare system. The sector has expanded since 2010, when the Indonesian government allowed foreign investment in private healthcare services. Some facilities are operated by nonprofit or religious organisations, while many others are run by private hospital groups such as Siloam, Pondok Indah Hospital Group, and Mitra Keluarga.^{[182][183][184]}

Water supply

Jakarta’s piped water supply is operated through a concession system involving private companies and a public asset holder. Since 1998, two private operators—PALYJA and Aetra—have provided piped water services in the western and eastern parts of the city respectively under concession agreements, while the infrastructure is owned by the public company PAM Jaya. Much of the city’s water supply originates from the West Tarum Canal system, which carries water from the Jatiluhur reservoir on the Citarum River, about 70 km (43 mi) southeast of Jakarta. The water supply system was originally privatised in 1998, when concessions were granted to the French company Suez Environnement and the British company Thames Water. These companies later transferred their stakes to Indonesian operators. During the early years of the concession system, customer growth was slower than expected, partly due to tariff increases adjusted for inflation. Tariffs were later frozen in 2005, which reduced investment by private operators.

Access to piped water has improved over time but remains uneven across the city. According to PALYJA data, service coverage in western Jakarta increased from about 34% in 1998 to 65% in 2010,^[185] while access in eastern Jakarta rose from roughly 57% in 1998 to around 67% in 2004 before stagnating.^[d][186] However, some independent studies have estimated much lower levels of direct household access, with figures as low as 25% in 2005 and 18.5% in 2011.^[187][188] Many residents without piped water rely on groundwater wells, which are often saline or contaminated. As of 2017, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources reported that Jakarta was facing a significant clean water crisis.^[189]

Twin towns – sister cities

Jakarta signed sister city agreements with other cities, including Casablanca. To promote friendship between the two cities, the main avenue famous for its shopping and business centres was named after Jakarta's Moroccan sister city. No street in Casablanca is named after Jakarta. However, the Moroccan capital city of Rabat has an avenue named after Sukarno, Indonesia's first president, to commemorate his visit in 1960 and as a token of friendship.^[191]

Jakarta's sister cities are:^[192]

Jakarta also has established a partnership with Rotterdam, especially on integrated urban water management, including capacity-building and knowledge exchange.^[194] This cooperation is mainly because both cities are dealing with similar problems; they lie in low-lying flat plains and are prone to flooding. Additionally, they have both implemented drainage systems involving canals, dams and pumps vital for both cities for below-sea-level areas.

In addition to its sister cities, Jakarta cooperates with:^[192]

• Arkansas, United States
• Budapest, Hungary
• New South Wales, Australia
• Paris, France
• Rotterdam, Netherlands