Knossos

Neolithic period

Knossos was settled around 7000 BC during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, making it the oldest known settlement in Crete. Radiocarbon dating has suggested dates around 7,030-6,780 BCE.^[5] The first occupants of the settlement likely came from Southwestern Anatolia by boat.^[6] The initial settlement was a hamlet of 25–50 people that covered less than 0.5 hectares (0.005 sq km)^[7] who lived in wattle and daub huts, kept animals, and grew crops. Domestic animals included pigs, dogs, sheep, goats, and small cattle that had been domesticated from Aurochs.^[8] Seven shallow graves have been found in the floors of houses with the remains of children. Remains from this period are concentrated in the area which would later become the central court of the palace, suggesting continuity in ritual activity.^[9][10][11] Stone tools found at Knossos from this period are made out of both non-local obsidian and local stones. The tools that are made out of local materials tend to be small and nodular and of lower quality than the obsidian tools. Few complete flakes or stone blades have been found. How intensely the tools were worked suggests that good stone for tool making was probably not readily available.^[6] After the initial settlement there may have been a period of abandonment before the site was resettled during the first half of the sixth millennium B.C.^[3]

In the Early Neolithic (6000–5000 BC), a village of 200–600 persons occupied most of the area of the later palace and the slopes to the north and west. Construction became more permanent and residents lived in one- or two-room square houses of mud-brick walls set on socles of stone, either field stone or recycled stone artifacts.^[3][12] The inner walls were lined with mud-plaster. The roofs were flat, composed of mud over branches. The residents dug hearths at various locations in the centre of the main room. This village had an unusual feature: one house under the West Court contained eight rooms and covered 50 m² (540 sq ft). The walls were at right angles and the door was centred. Large stones were used for support under points of greater stress.^[12] The fact that distinct sleeping cubicles for individuals was not the custom suggests storage units of some sort.^{[citation needed]} During the Early Neolithic pottery at Knossos was very homogeneous in form and decoration. Most pottery was burnished or polished open jars and bowls and was only rarely painted.^[13] Sometimes it was decorated with beaded rims or incised patterns filled with white paste.^[8] The clay used to make pottery varied, and some clay included rock types not native to Knossos, meaning it is possible some of the pottery was manufactured at other Early Neolithic settlements in the region.^[13]

The settlement of the Middle Neolithic (5000–4000 BC), was a large village between 1 and 2.5 hectares (0.01 to 0.025 sq km) that housed 500–1000 people^[12][13] in more substantial and presumably more family-private homes. Construction was the same, except the windows and doors were timbered, a fixed, raised hearth occupied the centre of the main room, and pilasters and other raised features (cabinets, beds) occupied the perimeter. Under the palace was the Great House, a 100 m² (1,100 sq ft) area stone house divided into five rooms with meter-thick walls suggesting a second storey could have been built.^[12] The presence of the house, which is unlikely to have been a private residence like the others, suggests a communal or public use; i.e., it may have been the predecessor of a palace.

Expansion of the settlement during the Late or Final Neolithic (4000 - 3000 BC) is debated. During excavations along the Royal Road pottery sherds were found dating to the Late Neolithic, but they were not associated with any buildings. If these sherds mean the area was occupied, expansion of the settlement continued during the Late Neolithic to around 4 to 5 hectares.^[8] Others argue that since this interpretation was based on unstratified pottery sherds, and not on stratified evidence of habitation, the settlement did not expand during the Late Neolithic.^[14] During this period households became larger and more complex.^[13] Two houses southwest of the Great House, under the Central Court of the palace from the Late Neolithic have been excavated. These houses are very similar in construction to the houses of the Middle Neolithic, but have a number of small doorless spaces that were used for storage. These are often seen in Bronze Age architecture and often indicate the presence of a second story.^[12]

Bronze Age

It is believed that the first Cretan palaces were built soon after c. 2000 BC, in the early part of the Middle Minoan period, at Knossos and other sites including Malia, Phaestos and Zakro. These palaces, which were to set the pattern of organisation in Crete and Greece through the second millennium, were a sharp break from the Neolithic village system that had prevailed thus far. The building of the palaces implies greater wealth and a concentration of authority, both political and religious. It is suggested that they followed eastern models such as those at Ugarit on the Syrian coast and Mari on the upper Euphrates.^[15]

The early palaces were destroyed during Middle Minoan II, sometime before c. 1700, almost certainly by earthquakes to which Crete is prone. By c. 1650, they had been rebuilt on a grander scale and the period of the second palaces (c. 1650 – c. 1450) marks the height of Minoan prosperity. All the palaces had large central courtyards which may have been used for public ceremonies and spectacles. Living quarters, storage rooms and administrative centres were positioned around the court and there were also working quarters for skilled craftsmen.^[15]

The palace of Knossos was by far the largest, covering three acres with its main building alone and five acres when separate out-buildings are considered. It had a monumental staircase leading to state rooms on an upper floor. A ritual cult centre was on the ground floor. The palace stores occupied sixteen rooms, the main feature in these being the pithoi that were large storage jars up to five feet tall. They were mainly used for storage of oil, wool, wine, and grain. Smaller and more valuable objects were stored in lead-lined cists. The palace had bathrooms, toilets, and a drainage system.^[15] A theatre was found at Knossos that would have held 400 spectators (an earlier one has been found at Phaestos). The orchestral area was rectangular, unlike later Athenian models, and they were probably used for religious dances.^[16]

Building techniques at Knossos were typical. The foundations and lower course were stonework with the whole built on a timber framework of beams and pillars. The main structure was built of large, unbaked bricks. The roof was flat with a thick layer of clay over brushwood. Internal rooms were brightened by light-wells and columns of wood, many fluted, were used to lend both support and dignity. The chambers and corridors were decorated with frescoes showing scenes from everyday life and scenes of processions. Warfare is conspicuously absent. The fashions of the time may be seen in depictions of women in various poses. They had elaborately dressed hair and wore long dresses with flounced skirts and puffed sleeves. Their bodices were tightly drawn in round their waists and their breasts were exposed.^[16]

The prosperity of Knossos was primarily based upon the development of native Cretan resources such as oil, wine, and wool. Another factor was the expansion of trade, evidenced by Minoan pottery found in Egypt, Syria, Anatolia, Rhodes, the Cyclades, Sicily, and mainland Greece. There seem to have been strong Minoan connections with Rhodes, Miletus, and Samos. Cretan influence may be seen in the earliest scripts found in Cyprus. The main market for Cretan wares was the Cyclades where there was a demand for pottery, especially the stone vases. It is not known whether the islands were subject to Crete or just trading partners, but there certainly was strong Cretan influence.^[17]

Around 1450 BC, the palaces at Malia, Phaestos, and Zakros were destroyed, leaving Knossos as the sole surviving palace on Crete. In this final period, Knossos seems to have been influenced or perhaps ruled by people from the mainland. Greek became the administrative language and the material culture shows parallels with Mycenaean styles, for instance in the architecture of tombs and styles of pottery.^[19]

Around 1350 BC, the palace was destroyed and not rebuilt. The building was ravaged by a fire which triggered the collapse of the upper stories. It is not known whether this final destruction was intentional or the result of a natural disaster such as an earthquake. While parts of the palace may have been used for later ceremonies and the town of Knossos saw a resurgence around 1200 BC, the building and its associated institutions were never restored.^[9]

Early Iron Age

While exact use of this term varies, the Early Iron Age (EIA) largely encompasses the period from the 11th to 8th centuries BC in a Grecian context, although some texts extend this period to the beginning of the Archaic Period in 630 BC.^[20] Given the supposed isolation of the Aegean, the EIA has long been called the “Greek Dark Age” by many scholars.^[21][20] In this vein, EIA Knossus was viewed as a small and dispersed settlement. Sandwiched between the Late Minoan and Roman periods, the latter whose foundations largely disturbed the EIA strata, documentation of the EIA settlement was extremely difficult.^[22][23][20] However, archaeologists now believe it was a large and nucleated settlement and, in fact, one of the most prosperous Aegean settlements during this period.^[22][20] Towards this consideration are, primarily, the dense scatters of sherds, which cover an extensive area for the EIA with resulting settlement land estimates ranging from 50-60 ha. The Homeric mythos, in which Idomeneus, the Knossian King, leads the Cretan contingent in the Trojan war, and interpretations of sites like Eltyna, Prinias, and the Idaean Cave, which contribute to the conception of Knossus, as opposed to north central Crete, as a center of political and economic power, further give support to the large Knossus theory, as well as rich discoveries at cemeteries, which will be discussed below in more depth.^[22]

Assuming an occupation density of 50-100 people/ha, this would have been a settlement of 2,500-6,000 residents, quite large for the time period. In fact, it is the only EIA Aegean site with goods originating from the Middle East and Sardinia and is now widely considered one of the most prosperous Aegean settlements during this period.^[22]

Classical and Roman period

After the Bronze Age, the town of Knossos continued to be occupied. By 1000 BC, it had reemerged as one of the most important centres of Crete. The city had two ports, one at Amnisos and another at Heraklion.

According to the ancient geographer Strabo the Knossians colonized the city of Brundisium in Italy.^[32] In 343 BC, Knossos was allied with Philip II of Macedon. The city employed a Phocian mercenary named Phalaikos against their enemy, the city of Lyttus. The Lyttians appealed to the Spartans who sent their king Archidamus III against the Knossians.^[33] In Hellenistic times Knossos came under Egyptian influence, but despite considerable military efforts during the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC), the Ptolemies were not able to unify the warring city states. In the third century BC Knossos expanded its power to dominate almost the entire island, but during the Lyttian War in 220 BC it was checked by a coalition led by the Polyrrhenians and the Macedonian king Philip V.^[34]

Twenty years later, during the Cretan War (205–200 BC), the Knossians were once more among Philip's opponents and, through Roman and Rhodian aid, this time they managed to liberate Crete from the Macedonian influence.^[35] With Roman aid, Knossos became once more the first city of Crete, but, in 67 BC, the Roman Senate chose Gortys as the capital of the newly created province Creta et Cyrene.^[36] In 36 BC, Knossos became a Roman colony named Colonia Iulia Nobilis.^[37] The colony, which was built using Roman-style architecture,^[37] was situated within the vicinity of the palace, but only a small part of it has been excavated.

The identification of Knossos with the Bronze Age site is supported by the Roman coins that were scattered over the fields surrounding the pre-excavation site, then a large mound named Kephala Hill, elevation 85 m (279 ft) from current sea level. Many of them were inscribed with Knosion or Knos on the obverse and an image of a Minotaur or Labyrinth on the reverse.^[38] The coins came from the Roman settlement of Colonia Julia Nobilis Cnossus, a Roman colony placed just to the north of, and politically including, Kephala. The Romans believed they were the first to colonize Knossos.^[39]

Post-Roman history

In 325, Knossos became a diocese, suffragan of the metropolitan see of Gortyna.^[40] In Ottoman Crete, the see of Knossos was in Agios Myron, 14 km to the southwest.^[40] The bishops of Gortyn continued to call themselves bishops of Knossos until the nineteenth century.^[41] The diocese was abolished in 1831.^[40]

During the ninth century AD the local population shifted to the new town of Chandax (modern Heraklion). By the thirteenth century, it was called the Makruteikhos 'Long Wall'.

In its modern history, the name Knossos is used only for the archaeological site. It was extensively excavated by Arthur Evans in the early 20th century, and Evans' residence at the site served as a military headquarters during World War II. Knossos is now situated in the expanding suburbs of Heraklion.

In 2025, the site was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.^[42]

Layout

Like other Minoan palaces, Knossos was arranged around a rectangular central court. This court was twice as long north-south as it was east-west, an orientation that would have maximized sunlight, and positioned important rooms towards the rising sun.^{[50][51][52][53]}

The central court is believed to have been used for rituals and festivals. One of these festivals is believed to be depicted in the Grandstand Fresco. Some scholars have suggested that bull-leaping would have taken place in the courts, though others have argued that the paving would not have been optimal for the animals or the people, and that the restricted access points would have kept the spectacle too far out of public view.^[50][51]

The 6 acres (24,000 m²) of the palace included a theater, a main entrance on each of its four cardinal faces, and extensive storerooms.

Location

The palace was built on Kephala Hill, 5 km (3.1 mi) south of the coast. The site is located at the confluence of two streams called the Vlychia and the Kairatos, which would have provided drinking water to the ancient inhabitants. Looming over the right bank of the Vlychia, on the opposite shore from Knossos, is Gypsades Hill, on whose eastern side the Minoans quarried their gypsum.

Though it was surrounded by the town of Knossos, this hill was never an acropolis in the Greek sense. It had no steep heights, remained unfortified, and was not very high off the surrounding ground.^[54]

The Royal Road is the last vestige of a Minoan road that connected the port to the palace complex. Today a modern road, Leoforos Knosou, built over or replacing the ancient roadway, serves that function and continues south.

Storage

The palace had extensive storage magazines which were used for agricultural commodities as well as tableware. Enormous sets of high quality tableware were stored in the palaces, often produced elsewhere in Crete.^[55] Pottery at Knossos is prolific, heavily-decorated and uniquely-styled by period. In Minoan chronology, the standard relative chronology is largely based on pottery styles and is thus used to assign dates to layers of the palace.

Water management

The palace had at least three separate water-management systems: one for supply, one for drainage of runoff, and one for drainage of waste water.

Aqueducts brought fresh water to Kephala hill from springs at Archanes, about 10 km away. Springs there are the source of the Kairatos river, in the valley in which Kephala is located. The aqueduct branched to the palace and to the town. Water was distributed at the palace by gravity feed through terracotta pipes to fountains and spigots. The pipes were tapered at one end to make a pressure fit, with rope for sealing. Unlike Mycenae, no hidden springs have been discovered.

Sanitation drainage was through a closed system leading to a sewer apart from the hill. The queen's megaron contained an example of the first known water-flushing system latrine adjoining the bathroom. This toilet was a seat over a drain that was flushed by pouring water from a jug. The bathtub located in the adjoining bathroom similarly had to be filled by someone heating, carrying, and pouring water, and must have been drained by overturning into a floor drain or by bailing. This toilet and bathtub were exceptional structures within the 1,300-room complex.

As the hill was periodically drenched by torrential rains, a runoff system was a necessity. It began with channels in the flat surfaces, which were zigzag and contained catchment basins to control the water velocity. Probably the upper system was open. Manholes provided access to parts that were covered.

Some links to photographs of parts of the water-collection-management system follow.

• Runoff system.^[56] Sloped channels lead from a catchment basin.
• Runoff system.^[57] Note the zig-zags and the catchment basin.

Ventilation

Due to its placement on the hill, the palace received sea breezes during the summer. It had porticoes and air shafts.

Minoan columns

The palace also includes the Minoan column, a structure notably different from Greek columns. Unlike the stone columns that are characteristic of Greek architecture, the Minoan column was constructed from the trunk of a cypress tree, which is common to the Mediterranean. While Greek columns are smaller at the top and wider at the bottom to create the illusion of greater height (entasis), the Minoan columns are smaller at the bottom and wider at the top, a result of inverting the cypress trunk to prevent sprouting once in place.^[58] The columns at the Palace of Minos were plastered, painted red and mounted on stone bases with round, pillow-like capitals.

Frescoes

The palace at Knossos used considerable amounts of colour, as did Greek buildings in the classical period. In the EM Period, the walls and pavements were coated with a pale red derived from red ochre. In addition to the background colouring, the walls displayed fresco panel murals, entirely of red. In the subsequent MM Period, with the development of the art, white and black were added, and then blue, green, and yellow. The pigments were derived from natural materials, such as ground hematite. Outdoor panels were painted on fresh stucco with the motif in relief; indoor, on fresh, pure plaster, softer than the plaster with additives ordinarily used on walls.^[59]

The decorative motifs were generally bordered scenes: humans, legendary creatures, animals, rocks, vegetation, and marine life. Many of the depicted motifs had symbolic meanings and are thought to have corresponded to the activities and rituals carried out in the respective rooms.^[60] The earliest paintings in the palace imitated pottery motifs. Most have been reconstructed from various numbers of flakes fallen to the floor. Evans had various technicians and artists work on the project, some artists, some chemists, and restorers. The symmetry and use of templates made possible a degree of reconstruction beyond what was warranted by only the flakes. For example, if evidence of the use of a certain template existed scantily in one place, the motif could be supplied from the template found somewhere else. Like the contemporary murals in the funerary art of the Egyptians, certain conventions were used that also assisted prediction. For example, male figures are shown with darker or redder skin than female figures.

Some archaeological authors have objected that Evans and his restorers were not discovering the palace and civilization as it was, but were creating a modern artifact based on contemporary art and architecture.^[61]

• 
  Cup bearer fresco
• 
  Procession fresco
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  Sacred grove fresco
• 
  Grandstand fresco
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  Blue birds fresco
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  Blue monkeys fresco
• 
  Dolphin fresco

Throne Room

The centrepiece of the "Minoan" palace was the so-called Throne Room or Little Throne Room,^[62] dated to LM II. This chamber has an alabaster seat which Evans referred to as a "throne" built into the north wall. On three sides of the room are gypsum benches. On the south side of the throne room there is a feature called a lustral basin, so-called because Evans found remains of unguent flasks inside it and speculated that it had been used as part of an anointing ritual.^[63]

The room was accessed from an anteroom through double doors. The anteroom was connected to the central court, which was (in the later phases of the palace) four steps up through four doors. The anteroom had gypsum benches also, with carbonized remains between two of them thought possibly to be a wooden throne.^[64] Both rooms are located in the ceremonial complex on the west of the central court.

The throne is flanked by the Griffin Fresco, with two griffins couchant (lying down) facing the throne, one on either side.^[65] Griffins were important mythological creatures, also appearing on seal rings, which were used to stamp the identities of the bearers into pliable material, such as clay or wax.^[66]

The actual use of the room and the throne is unclear. The two main theories are as follows:

• The seat of a priest-king or a queen. This is the older theory, originating with Evans. In that regard Matz speaks of the "heraldic arrangement" of the griffins, meaning that they are more formal and monumental than previous Minoan decorative styles. In this theory, the Mycenaeans would have held court in this room, as they came to power in Knossos at about 1,450. The "lustral basin" and the location of the room in a sanctuary complex cannot be ignored; hence, "priest-king".
• A room reserved for the epiphany of a goddess,^[67] who would have sat in the throne, either in effigy, or in the person of a priestess, or in imagination only. In that case the griffins would have been purely a symbol of divinity rather than a heraldic motif.

• 
  The throne from which the room was named, not the only throne at Knossos
• 
  The throne room prior to reconstruction
• 
• 
  Throne room grass fresco