Mithra

Together with the Vedic common noun mitra, the Avestan common noun miθra derives from Proto-Indo-Iranian *mitrám (Mitra), from the root *mi- "to bind", with the "tool suffix" -tra- "causing to". Thus, etymologically mitra/miθra means "that which causes binding", preserved in the Avestan word for "Covenant, Contract, Oath".^{[citation needed]}

In Middle Iranian languages (Middle Persian, Parthian etc.), miθra became mihr, from which New Persian مهر mehr and Armenian Միհր Mihr and Մհեր Mher ultimately derive.

As a member of the Iranian ahuric triad, along with Ahura Mazda and Ahura Berezant (Apam Napat), Mithra is an exalted figure. Alongside Apam Napat, Mithra maintains order in society, as well as Khvarenah, by which legitimate rule is maintained among the Iranian peoples.^[7][8] Together with Rashnu "Justice" and Sraosha "Obedience", Mithra is one of the three judges at the Chinvat Bridge, the "Bridge of Judgement" that all souls must cross. Unlike Sraosha, however, Mithra is not a psychopomp, a guide of souls to the place of the dead. Should the Good Thoughts, Words, and Deeds outweigh the Bad, Sraosha alone conveys the Soul across the Bridge. As the god of contract, Mithra is indeceivable, infallible, eternally watchful, and never-resting. Mithra is additionally the protector of cattle, and his stock epithet is "of Wide Pastures." He is guardian of the waters and ensures that those pastures receive enough of it.

Like most other divinities, Mithra is not mentioned by name in the Gathas, the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism and traditionally attributed to Zoroaster himself, or by name in the Yasna Haptanghaiti, a seven-verse section of the Yasna liturgy that is linguistically as old as the Gathas. The lack of Mithra's presence in the Gathas was once a cause of some consternation amongst Iranians. An often repeated speculation of the first half of the 20th century was that the lack of any mention (i.e., Zoroaster's silence) of Mithra in these texts implied that Zoroaster had rejected Mithra. This ex silentio speculation is no longer followed. Building on that speculation was another series of speculations, which postulated that the reason why Zoroaster did not mention Mithra was that the latter was the supreme God of a bloodthirsty group of daeva-worshipers that Zoroaster condemned. However, "no satisfactory evidence has yet been adduced to show that, before Zoroaster, the concept of a supreme god existed among the Iranians, or that among them Mithra – or any other divinity – ever enjoyed a separate cult of his or her own outside either their ancient or their Zoroastrian pantheons."^[9]

Mithra is described in the Zoroastrian Avesta scriptures as "Mithra of Wide Pastures, of the Thousand Ears, and of the Myriad Eyes," (Yasna 1:3),^[10] "the Lofty, and the Everlasting... the Province Ruler," (Yasna 1:11),^[10] "the Yazad (Divinity) of the Spoken Name" (Yasna 3:5),^[10] and "the Holy," (Yasna 3:13).^[10] The Khorda Avesta (Book of Common Prayer) also refer to Mithra in the Litany to the Sun, "Homage to Mithra of Wide Cattle Pastures," (Khwarshed Niyayesh 5),^[11] "Whose Word is True, who is of the Assembly, Who has a Thousand Ears, the Well-Shaped One, Who has Ten Thousand Eyes, the Exalted One, Who has Wide Knowledge, the Helpful One, Who Sleeps Not, the Ever Wakeful. We sacrifice to Mithra, The Lord of all countries, Whom Ahura Mazda created the most glorious, Of the Supernatural Yazads. So may there come to us for Aid, Both Mithra and Ahura, the Two Exalted Ones," (Khwarshed Niyayesh 6-7),^[11] "I shall sacrifice to his mace, well-aimed against the Skulls of the Daevas" (Khwarshed Niyayesh 15).^[11] The daeva Aeshma flees before Mithra (Yasna 57:10). Some recent theories have claimed Mithra represents the Sun itself, but the Khorda Avesta refers to the Sun as a separate entity – as it does with the Moon, with which the Sun has "the Best of Friendships," (Khwarshed Niyayesh 15).^[11]

The Avestan Hymn to Mithra (Yasht 10) is the longest, and one of the best-preserved, of the Yashts. Mithra is described in the Mihr Yasht, the Middle Persian term for the tenth book of the Yasht, as a powerful god and one of the Ahuras (lords).^[12] Mithra bestows wonderful blessings and brings disasters upon those who break contracts, fight against their contractual partners, and are not bound by oaths. Whether Mithra is angry or peaceful, he remains a benefactor of humankind, who, in turn, cannot live in peace without a love of truth. Mithra constantly observes and oversees everything that exists between heaven and earth. He embodies a sacred concept that is essential for a society in daily life. He is a deity for men of authority: the master of the house, the head of the village, the tribal leader, and the ruler of the land.^[13]

In the apocalyptic Zand-i Wahman yasn, the yazata Mithra intervenes on Peshotanu’s side in the struggle against the daevas, who have exceeded their term of rule by 1,000 years, and defeats the daeva Aeshma, whereupon Aeshma and his followers flee back to Duzakh.^[14]

In Zoroastrian scripture, Mithra is distinct from the divinity of the Sun, Hvare-khshaeta (literally "Radiant Sun", from which the Middle Persian word Khorshed for the Sun). However, in Zoroastrian tradition, Mithra evolved from being an all-seeing figure (hence vaguely associated with the Sun) into a divinity co-identified with the Sun itself, effectively taking over Hvare-khshaeta's role. It is uncertain how and when and why this occurred, but it is commonly attributed to conflation with the Babylonian sun god Shamash and/or the Greek deity Apollo, with whom Mithra shares multiple characteristics such as a judicial function and association with the Sun. This characteristic is part of Mithra's Indo-Iranian inheritance in that the Indic Rigveda has solar divinities that are not distinct from Mithra, who is associated with sunrise in the Atharvaveda. Om Mitraya Namaha is a Hindu mantra chanted in the practice of Sun Salutation, wherein Mitra is a name of the god of the Sun, Surya.^[15]

In the Zoroastrian calendar, the sixteenth day of the month and the seventh month of the year are dedicated to and are under the protection of Mithra. The Iranian civil calendar of 1925 adopted Zoroastrian month-names, and as such also has the seventh month of the year named "Mihr". The position of the sixteenth day and seventh month reflects Mithra's rank in the hierarchy of the Divinities; the sixteenth day and seventh month are respectively the first day of the second half of the month and the first month of the second half of the year. The day on which the day-name and month-name dedications intersect is (like all other such intersections) dedicated to the divinity of that day/month, and is celebrated with a Jashan (from Avestan Yasna, "Worship") in honor of that Divinity. In the case of Mithra, this was Jashan-e Mehregan, or just Mehregan for short.

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  Coin of Artabanus II of Parthia (c. 128–124 BC). The Hellenistic depiction on the reverse shows the king kneeling before an Apollo-like god, which is thought to be Mithra.^[16]
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  Mithras-Helios (right), with solar rays and in Iranian dress,^[26] with Antiochus I of Commagene (Mt. Nemrut, 1st century BCE)
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  Coinage of Kushan ruler Kanishka I with Miiro (Μιιρο), "Mithra". c. 120–150 CE
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  A marble relief of the tauroctony in later Roman Mithraism, 2nd – 3rd century CE
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  Investiture of Sassanid emperor Ardashir II (3rd century CE) bas-relief at Taq-e Bostan, Iran. On the left stands the yazata Mithra with raised barsom, sanctifying the investiture.^[16]

Persian and Parthian-speaking Manichaeans used the name of Mithra current in their time (Mihryazd, q.e. Mithra-yazata) for two different Manichaean angels.

1. The first, called Mihryazd by the Persians, was the "Living Spirit" (Aramaic rūḥā ḥayyā), a savior-figure who rescues the "First Man" from the demonic Darkness into which he had plunged.
2. The second, known as Mihr or Mihr Yazd among the Parthians, is the "Messenger" (Aramaic īzgaddā), likewise a savior figure, but one concerned with setting up the structures to liberate the Light lost when the First Man had been defeated.

The second figure mentioned above, the Third Messenger, was the helper and redeemer of mankind, and identified with another Zoroastrian divinity, Narisaf (derived from Pahlavi Narsēh from Avestan Nairyō.saȵhō, meaning 'Potent Utterance', the name of a Yazata).^[27] Citing Boyce,^[28] Sundermann remarks, "It was among the Parthian Manicheans that Mithra as a Sun God surpassed the importance of Narisaf as the common Iranian image of the Third Messenger; among the Parthians the dominance of Mithra was such that his identification with the Third Messenger led to cultic emphasis on the Mithraic traits in the Manichaean God."^[29]

Unrelated to these Mihrs are Parthian and Sogdian Mytr or Mytrg. Although sharing linguistic roots with the name Mithra, Werner Sundermann established that those names denote Manicheanism’s equivalent of Maitreya.

According to Boyce, the earliest literary references to the Mithraic mysteries are by the Latin poet Statius, about 80 CE, and Plutarch (c. 100 CE).^[30] According to Plutarch, Mithra occupies the middle ground between Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu, and is therefore called the mediator.^[31] De Jong offers an original translation of this passage: "That is why the Persians call the mediator Mithra," referring to the Pahlavi migāncīg ("mediary"), an epithet of Mithra.^[32] The same function of mediation with Druj is attributed to Sraosha in the Yashts.^[33] According to Benveniste, it originally belonged to Mithra.^[34]

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