Neonatology

Though high infant mortality rates were recognized by the medical community at least as early as the 1860s, advances in modern neonatal intensive care have led to a significant decline in infant mortality in the modern era.^[7] Globally, neonatal mortality has declined substantially since 1990, falling from 5.0 million deaths in 1990 to 2.3 million in 2022.^[5] This has been achieved through a combination of technological advances, enhanced understanding of newborn physiology, improved sanitation practices, and development of specialized units for neonatal intensive care.^[7][6] Around the mid-19th century, the care of newborns was in its infancy and was led mainly by obstetricians;^[8] however, the early 1900s, pediatricians began to assume a more direct role in caring for neonates.^[7] The term neonatology was coined by Dr. Alexander Schaffer in 1960.^[4] The American Board of Pediatrics established an official sub-board certification for neonatology in 1975.

In 1835, the Russian physician Georg von Ruehl developed a rudimentary incubator made from two nestled metal tubs enclosing a layer of warm water.^[9] By the mid-1850s, these "warming tubs" were in regular use at the Moscow Foundling Hospital for the support of premature infants.^[9] 1857, Jean-Louis-Paul Denuce was the first to publish a description of his own similar incubator design, and was the first physician to describe its utility in the support of premature infants in medical literature.^[9] By 1931, Dr. A Robert Bauer added more sophisticated upgrades to the incubator which allowed for humidity control and oxygen delivery in addition to heating capabilities, further contributing to improved survival in newborns.^[10]

The 1950s brought a rapid escalation in neonatal services with the advent of mechanical ventilation of the newborn, allowing for survival at an increasingly smaller birth weight.^[6]

In 1952, the anesthesiologist Dr. Virginia Apgar developed the Apgar score, used for standardized assessment of infants immediately upon delivery, to guide further steps in resuscitation if necessary.^[11]

The first dedicated neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) was established at Yale New Haven Hospital in Connecticut in 1965.^[12] Prior to the development of the NICU, premature and critically ill infants were attended to in nurseries without specialized resuscitation equipment.^[12]

In 1968, Dr. Jerold Lucey demonstrated that hyperbilirubinemia of prematurity (a form of neonatal jaundice) could be successfully treated through exposure to artificial blue light.^[13] This led to widespread use of phototherapy, which has now become a mainstay of treatment of neonatal jaundice.^[14]

In the 1980s, the development of pulmonary surfactant replacement therapy further improved survival of extremely premature infants and decreased chronic lung disease, one of the complications of mechanical ventilation, among less severely premature infants.^[6]

Neonatology is among the most widely available pediatric subspecialties globally. After completing medical school and postgraduate training in pediatrics, doctors undertake additional subspecialty training focused on neonatal care. Neonatal training programs generally involve several years of supervised clinical practice and culminate in subspecialty certification or accreditation through national medical specialty boards or medical colleges. Although neonatology subspecialty services exist in most countries worldwide, formal training opportunities are less common in low-income countries, particularly in Africa.^[15]

In the United States, a neonatologist is a physician (MD or DO) practicing neonatology. To become a neonatologist, the physician initially receives training as a pediatrician, then completes an additional training called a fellowship (for three years in the US) in neonatology.^[16] In the United States of America, most but not all neonatologists are board certified in the specialty of pediatrics by the American Board of Pediatrics or the American Osteopathic Board of Pediatrics and in the sub-specialty of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine also by the American Board of Pediatrics or American Osteopathic Board of Pediatrics.^[17]

In the United Kingdom, after graduation from medical school and completing the two-year foundation programme, a physician wishing to become a neonatologist would enroll in an eight-year paediatric specialty training programme.^[18] The last two to three years of this would be devoted to training in neonatology as a subspecialty.

In Canada, subspecialty training in neonatal–perinatal medicine is accredited by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, which sets national standards for postgraduate medical training and certification. Neonatology programs are typically two-year fellowships following a four-year pediatric residency.^[19]

In Australia and New Zealand, neonatal–perinatal medicine training is overseen by the Royal Australasian College of Physicians, which administers physician and pediatric subspecialty training programs across both countries. Trainees complete three years of pediatric training followed by a structured three-year advanced training program in neonatal and perinatal medicine. ^[20]

In India, neonatology training is undertaken after postgraduate training in pediatrics and is provided through several pathways. Fellowship programs typically last 12 to 18 months and are overseen by the National Neonatology Forum of India and the Indian Academy of Pediatrics. An additional pathway is offered through the National Board of Examinations in Medical Sciences, which administers the three-year Diplomate of National Board (DrNB) in Neonatology. ^[21]

Neonatal medicine addresses conditions affecting infants during the neonatal period, generally defined as the first 28 days of life.^[4][5] Worldwide, premature birth, neonatal infections, birth complications (e.g., asphyxia, trauma), and congenital anomalies are the leading causes of neonatal death.^[5] Routine newborn care includes thermal protection (e.g., skin-to-skin contact between parent and infant), hygienic umbilical cord and skin care, breastfeeding, clinical assessment for signs of illness, and preventive measures (e.g., vaccination, vitamin K injection).^[5] While newborns are cared for in many settings, neonatologists typically work in hospitals or neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), where they care for premature or critically ill infants and may also oversee the evaluation and management of healthy newborns. In academic centers, neonatologists often participate in clinical and basic science research and may follow infants after discharge to assess long-term developmental outcomes.

Neonatology involves conditions related to fetal growth and development, complications arising from maternal disorders during pregnancy, and problems associated with labor, delivery, and the physiologic transition from fetal to extrauterine life. Neonatologists diagnose and manage genetic and chromosomal disorders, inborn errors of metabolism, infections acquired before, during, or shortly after birth, and disorders involving all major organ systems.^[4] Care is often delivered by multidisciplinary teams that may include neonatologists, neonatal nurses, respiratory therapists, dietitians, lactation consultants, physical therapists, pharmacists, social workers, and pastoral care.^[22] Specialized practices include neonatal resuscitation, neonatal transport, respiratory support, and intensive monitoring. In addition to disease management, neonatal care includes thermoregulation, nutritional support, fluid and electrolyte management, and preventive programs such as newborn screening.^[4]

• Neonatal nursing
• Neonatal intensive care unit