Balochistan, Pakistan

Ancient

Much of present-day Balochistan province occupies the southeastern most portion of the Iranian plateau. The Kach Gandava Plain in the northeast was the setting for the earliest known farming settlements in the pre-Indus Valley civilisation era, the earliest of which was Mehrgarh, dated around 7000 BCE.^[13]

Although an indigenous population existed during the Bronze Age and under the empire of Alexander the Great, the Baloch people themselves did not appeared in the region until the 14th century CE.^[7] From the first millennium BCE onwards, the region was divided into several provinces of the Achaemenid Empire, namely Maka, which certainly corresponded to Makran, and Zarang.^[12] The Greek authors during the time of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE described the region as the inhospitable Gedrosian desert, with scarce vegetation and water.^[12] Alexander crossed the Gedrosian desert after returning from Indian subcontinent. According to the ancient Greek writers, the population of Gedrosia consisted of Indian ethnic groups like Arbies and Oreitae, and Iranian Myci;^[12] as well as Ichthyophagi ("Fish-eaters"), sometimes identified with the modern Med people.^[14] Seleucus I Nicator was forced to cede Gedrosia along with other northwestern regions to the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta in 302 BCE.^[15]

Next significant information about Makran comes from the Sasanian period.^[12] A king of Makran paid homage to Sasanian Shah Narseh (r. 293 – 303) upon his accession. Sasanians divided the region into several units, including Makran, Tugran (modern Kalat), Paradan (probably modern Kharan) and Hind. Tugran was well-populated by people speaking a non-Iranian language, possibly the Brahui people of today.^[12] The Brahuis, whose language belong to Dravidian family, are considered the remnants of the earliest people of the region.^[16] During Sasanian period Makran and Qayqan (present-day Kalat) had a substantial population of Zuṭṭ or Jat dromedary-men, many of whom were resettled by Sasanians in the southern regions (present-day Iraq) in the times of Bahram V (r. 420 – 438).^{[17][18]: 142}

Makran was a part of the Chach dynasty of Sindh in the 7th century. It was captured by Persians during the reign of Rai Siharas II, but Chach of Aror recovered Makran in 631 CE.^{[18]: 133–134} According to Chachnama, Chach went with his army and marked the border of his kingdom with Kerman by planting date-trees along the banks of a small stream, and branded following words there, "This is the boundary as established in the days of Chach, son of Salaji, son of Basij, King of Sind, when it came into his possession."^{[18]: 133–134} The exact border thus marked is uncertain, although according to André Wink it was probably beyond Tiz.^{[18]: 133–134} A large population of Makran was Buddhist before Muslim conquests, as mentioned by Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang.^{[18]: 134–135}

Medieval

The early Arab geographers regarded Makran a part of al-Sind.^[18]: 132 An Arab army invaded Makran in 644 during the tenure of caliph Omar (r. 634 – 644). It defeated the king of Sind and marched almost until Indus river, but after hearing the reports of poor economic conditions and water scarcity in the region, the caliph ordered the troops to not cross the river.^[12] The territory of Qayqan in Sind was first conquered by Muslims during the reign of caliph Ali in 659, but in 667 the Muslim governor Abdullah ibn Sawar al-Abdi was killed in a rebellion and Qayqan was lost.^[19] According to the 9th century geographical treatise Futuh al-Buldan, the people of Qayqan were Zuṭṭ.^[20]: 158 In the following centuries the region attracted a large number of Kharijites.^[12] A Kharijite breakaway state was established under the Arab Ma'danid dynasty in Makran in the 9th century, whose rulers adopted the Sanskrit title of mahraj.^[21]

In the 11th century the Ghaznavids brought much of Makran under their control. Over the next three centuries the foreign influence over Makran weakened and the region again became relatively autonomous. The Italian traveller Marco Polo mentioned the existence of an independent Muslim state in Kij-Makran in the 13th century, describing it as the last kingdom in India.^{[12][18]: 133} According to Marco Polo, the ruler of Makran was known as malek. Food was abundantly produced and the people were involved in trade as well as agriculture.^[12]

Pre-modern

During the era of Baloch chief and folk hero Mir Chakar Rind, another large wave of Baloch people moved to the Punjab Plains in the 15th century.^[12] The epic poetry of the period gives much details regarding the intertribal Rind-Lashari War. In 1620, Kij-Makran was taken over by the Buledi tribe, which later came to rule all of Makran. Buledis were followers of Zikrism, a Mahdist sect, as were the Gichkis, who ousted them in 1740.^[12] The Brahui Qambrani dynasty established the Khanate of Kalat towards the end of 17th-century in the Kalat highlands. The Khan of Kalat Abdullah Khan died fighting against the Kalhora Amirs of Sindh in 1731. His successor, Muhabat Khan was awarded the Kach Gandava Plains of Sindh by Nader Shah during the later's invasion of Mughal Empire in 1739 as blood compensation for the death of Abdullah Khan.^[12] Mir Nasir Khan I, the greatest Khan of Kalat, expanded his rule over all of Balochistan. He established a standing army recruited from the tribes of Sarawan and Jhalawan, and an administrative machinery. He pledged allegiance to Ahmad Shah Durrani, who granted him Quetta in 1751. Nasir Khan undertook nine campaigns against Gichkis of Makran, forcing them to recognise his suzerainty, as well as against the rulers of Kharan and Lasbela.^[12] The Khanate declined after his death in 1795.^[23]

Colonial

In 1876, Baluchistan became one of the presidencies and provinces of British India,^[24] when Robert Sandeman negotiated the Treaty of Kalat, which brought the Khan of Kalat's territories, as well as the princely states of Makran, Kharan, and Las Bela, under British protection, even though they retained internal independence.^[25] After facing defeat in the Second Afghan War, the Afghan Emir ceded the districts of Quetta, Pishin, Harnai, and Sibi to the British under the terms of Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879. On 1 April 1883, the British took control of the Bolan Pass, south-east of Quetta, from the Khan of Kalat. In 1887, small additional areas of Balochistan were declared British territory.^[26] Two devastating earthquakes occurred in Balochistan during British colonial rule: the 1935 Quetta earthquake, which devastated Quetta, and the 1945 Balochistan earthquake with its epicentre in the Makran region.^[27]

In British India, Baluchistan consisted of a Chief Commissioner's province and princely states (including Kalat, Makran, Las Bela, and Kharan) that became a part of Pakistan.^[28] During the time of the Indian independence movement, three pro-Congress parties were still active in Balochistan's politics apart from Balochistan's Muslim League, including the Anjuman-i-Watan Baluchistan, which opposed partition of British India.^[29][30] The province's Shahi Jirga (the grand council of tribal elders^[31]) and the non-official members of the Quetta Municipality,^[32] according to the Pakistani version,^[33]: 80 agreed to join Pakistan unanimously on 29 June 1947;^[32] however, the political scientist Salman Rafi Sheikh states that the Shahi Jirga was stripped of its members from the Kalat State before the vote.^[33]: 81 The then-president of the Balochistan Muslim League, Qazi Muhammad Isa, informed Muhammad Ali Jinnah that "Shahi Jirga in no way represents the popular wishes of the masses" and that members of the Kalat State were "excluded from voting; only representatives from the British part of the province voted including the leased areas of Quetta, Nasirabad Tehsil, Nushki and Bolan Agency."^[33]: 81 Following the referendum, on 22 June 1947 the Khan of Kalat Ahmad Yar Khan received a letter from members of the Shahi Jirga, as well as sardars from the leased areas of Baluchistan, stating that they, "as a part of the Baloch nation, were a part of the Kalat state too" and that if the question of Baluchistan's accession to Pakistan arise, "they should be deemed part of the Kalat state rather than (British) Balochistan".^[33]: 82 This has brought into question whether an actual vote took place, says Sheikh.^[33]: 82

After independence

Lasbela was first of the four princely states to accede to Pakistan on 7 March 1948. The ruler of Lasbela, who belonged to the Jamote Korejo family, cited their historical links with Sindh as the reason for the accession. It was followed by accession of Makran and Kharan on 17 March; the accession of all three was accepted by the Pakistani government on the same day.^[34] According to Dushka H. Saiyid, Ahmad Yar Khan lost all of his bargaining chips with the accession of Kharan, Las Bela, and Makran, leaving Kalat as a land-locked island.^[35] Salman Rafi Sheikh largely concurs with Saiyid's assessment: multiple other Kalat sardars were preparing to accede to Pakistan and Ahmad Yar Khan would have hardly any territory left, if he did not accede.^[33]: 80 Initially aspiring for independence,^[32] the Khan of Kalat finally acceded to Pakistan on 27 March 1948 following a period of negotiations with Pakistan.^[36] The signing of the Instrument of Accession by Ahmad Yar Khan led his brother, Prince Abdul Karim, to revolt against his brother's decision due to their family rift^[37] in July 1948.^[38] The Prince indulged in terrorist activities without any assistance from others.^[39] Princes Agha Abdul Karim Baloch and Muhammad Rahim refused to lay down arms, leading the Dosht-e Jhalawan in unconventional attacks on the army until 1950.^[40] Baluchistan States Union was established in 1952 with Khan of Kalat as its head. Jinnah and his successors allowed Yar Khan to retain his title until the province's dissolution in 1955 into West Pakistan.

Gwadar, a region of Balochistan, was a colony of Oman for more than a century, from 1783 until 1958, when it was purchased by Pakistan.^[41] Many people in this region are therefore Omani.^[42] In 1970, the prior four provinces were restored, resulting in the establishment of Balochistan province.

Insurgencies by Baloch separatists took place in 1948–1950, 1958–1960, 1962–1969, and 1973–1977, with an ongoing insurgency by autonomy-seeking Baloch groups since 2003.^[43][44] While many Baloch support the demand for autonomy, the majority is reportedly not interested in seceding from Pakistan.^[45]

At a press conference on 8 June 2015 in Quetta, the provincial Home Minister Sarfraz Bugti accused India's Prime Minister Narendra Modi of openly supporting terrorism. Bugti implicated India's Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) of being responsible for recent attacks at military bases in Smangli and Khalid, and for subverting the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) agreement.^[46][47][48]

Climate

The climate of the upper highlands is characterised by very cold winters and hot summers. In the lower highlands, winters vary from extremely cold in northern districts of Ziarat, Quetta, Kalat, Muslim Bagh, and Khanozai, where temperatures can drop to −20 °C (−4 °F), to milder conditions closer to the Makran coast. Winters are mild on the plains, with temperatures never falling below freezing point. Summers are hot and dry, especially in the arid zones of Chagai and Kharan districts. The plains are also very hot in summer, with temperatures reaching 50 °C (122 °F). The record high temperature, 53 °C (127 °F), was recorded in Sibi on 26 May 2010,^[50] exceeding the previous record, 52 °C (126 °F). Other hot areas include Turbat and Dalbandin. The desert climate is characterised by hot and very arid conditions. Occasionally, strong windstorms make these areas very inhospitable.

Administrative divisions

For administrative purposes, the province is divided into seven divisions: Kalat, Makran, Nasirabad, Quetta, Sibi, Zhob, and Rakhshan. This divisional level was abolished in 2000, but restored after the 2008 election. Each division is under an appointed commissioner. The seven divisions are further subdivided into 36 districts:^[51][52]

As of June 2021, there are eight divisions. The eighth division, Loralai Division, was created by bifurcating Zhob Division.^[53]

Languages and ethnicities

According to the preliminary results of the 2023 census, the languages with the most native speakers in the province are Balochi, spoken by 39.91% of the population (an increase of 4% compared to the 2017 census), and Pashto whose share is at 34.34%.^[62]

The Pashtuns mainly inhabit the north of Balochistan and form the majority in Quetta. Baloch on the other hand are found throughout Balochistan, but most highly concentrated in the west and south of the province.

Brahui is spoken by 17.22% mainly in the central part of Balochistan. Other languages include Sindhi (3.81%), Saraiki (2.19%), Punjabi (0.59%), Urdu (0.53%) and others at (1.5%).

Balochi forms the majority in 21 districts and Pashto forms majority in 9 districts of Balochistan.^[63] Brahui has majority in 4 districts. In the Lasbela, Hub districts and in Kachhi plain region a large minority of the population speaks Lasi and Siraiki,^[64] which are dialects of Sindhi.^[65]

According to the Ethnologue, households speaking Balochi, whose primary dialect is Makrani constitutes 13%, Rukhshani 10%, Sulemani 7%, and Khetrani 3% of the population. Other languages spoken are Lasi, Urdu, Punjabi, Hazargi, Sindhi, Saraiki, Dehvari, Dari, Tajik, Hindko, Uzbek, and Hindki.^[66]

The 2005 census concerning Afghans in Pakistan showed that a total of 769,268^[67] Afghan refugees were temporarily staying in Balochistan. However, there are probably fewer Afghans living in Balochistan today as many refugees repatriated in 2013. As of 2015, there are only 327,778 registered Afghan refugees according to the UNHCR.^[68]

Religion

According to the 2017 Census, nearly all of the population of Balochistan were Muslims. There were also Hindu and Christian minorities in the province. The Hindu population in the province was approximately 49,133 (including the Scheduled Castes).^[74][75][76] The Shri Hinglaj Mata mandir which is the largest Hindu pilgrimage centre in Pakistan is situated in Balochistan.^[77] There was also a Christian minority of 26,462 individuals in the province.^[75]

More information Religious group, 1901: 5 ...

Religion in Balochistan (1901–2023)

Religious group	1901[78]: 5		1911[69]: 9–13		1921[70]: 47–52		1931[71]: 149		1941[56]: 13–18		1951[79][80]		1998[81]		2017[82]		2023[83]
	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%
Islam	765,368	94.4%	782,648	93.76%	733,477	91.73%	798,093	91.88%	785,181	91.53%	1,137,063	98.52%	6,484,006	98.75%	12,255,528	99.28%	14,429,568	99.09%
Hinduism	38,158	4.71%	38,326	4.59%	51,348	6.42%	53,681	6.18%	54,394	6.34%	13,087	1.13%	39,146	0.6%	49,378	0.4%	59,107	0.41%
Sikhism	2,972	0.37%	8,390	1.01%	7,741	0.97%	8,425	0.97%	12,044	1.4%	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	1,057	0.007%
Christianity	4,026	0.5%	5,085	0.61%	6,693	0.84%	8,059	0.93%	6,056	0.71%	3,937	0.34%	26,462	0.4%	33,330	0.27%	62,731	0.43%
Zoroastrianism	166	0.02%	170	0.02%	165	0.02%	167	0.02%	76	0.01%	79	0.01%	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	181	0%
Judaism	48	0.01%	57	0.01%	19	0.002%	17	0.002%	20	0.002%	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a
Jainism	8	0.001%	10	0.001%	17	0.002%	17	0.002%	7	0.001%	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a
Buddhism	0	0%	16	0.002%	160	0.02%	68	0.01%	43	0.01%	1	0%	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a
Ahmadiyya	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	—N/a	9,800	0.15%	2,469	0.02%	557	0.004%
Others	0	0%	1	0%	5	0.001%	75	0.009%	14	0.002%	0	0%	6,471	0.1%	3,703	0.03%	8,810	0.06%
Total responses	810,746	100%	834,703	100%	799,625	100%	868,617	100%	857,835	100%	1,154,167	98.31%	6,565,885	100%	12,344,408	100%	14,562,011	97.77%
Total population	810,746	100%	834,703	100%	799,625	100%	868,617	100%	857,835	100%	1,174,036	100%	6,565,885	100%	12,344,408	100%	14,894,402	100%

Close

List of universities

List of medical colleges

Natural resource extraction

Balochistan's share of Pakistan's national income has historically ranged between 3.7% to 4.9%.^[105] Since 1972, Balochistan's gross income has grown in size by 2.7 times.^[106] Outside Quetta, the resource extraction infrastructure of the province is gradually developing but still lags far behind other parts of Pakistan.

The agreements for royalty rights and ownership of mineral rights were reached during a period of unprecedented natural disasters, economic, social, political, and cultural unrest in Pakistan. The negotiations were widely considered to be insufficiently transparent.^[107]