Particulate matter sampler
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A particulate matter sampler is an instrument for measuring particulates (solids and liquids) in air. Particulate matter (PM) is a mixture that can include both inorganic materials (e.g. carbon, metals and other chemicals from dust, smoke, soot, sea salt, or sulfates)[1] and organic materials (e.g. bioaerosols from microbial, fungal, animal, or plant sources).[2][3]
Air quality is monitored worldwide by regulatory stations. Scientists, industries, and the public are also interested in using low-cost particulate matter sensors to detect air quality locally and in real time.[4] Some particulate matter samplers can continuously measure and report properties of particulates, while others collect samples for later analysis in a laboratory.[5] Different types of PM samplers can measure particulate matter in terms of particle size, particle mass, particle number, particle size distribution, and particle surface area.[6]
Measurement types
Airborne particulate matter (PM) is a complex mixture that can include small liquid droplets, dry solids, and liquid coatings around solid centers. Particles vary widely in size, shape and chemical composition.[7] Each source has its own particular emission profile or signature in terms of particle size and chemical composition.[4]
For air quality regulation, measurements are often defined in terms of the maximum diameter of the particles being measured. Particles with a diameter of 10 microns or less (PM10) are of concern because coarse particulates can be breathed into the lungs and cause harm. Fine particulate matter is smaller, with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less (PM2.5), and can penetrate farther into the lungs.[7] The term ultrafine (UF) is used for the smallest particulates, less than 0.1 micrometers.[8] The terms PM10 and PM2.5 define common cutoffs for particle size which are used when taking measurements. The numerical values reported for each category give the amount of particles in the size range being measured.[7] Exposure standards for PM10 and PM 2.5 have been set by various countries.[4] However, medical research suggests that no level of particulate exposure is safe.[1]
Particulate mass concentration (PMC) is a key air quality indicator used to measure pollution levels and assess potential health risks.[8] Particulate mass concentration is the total mass of particles present in a given volume of air. Such measurements typically describe particulate matter in terms of units of mass per volume,[9] e.g. micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3).[10] PMC is generally determined by filtering, sampling, and weighing particles collected from air. Filters may be designed to detect a particular size range (e.g. PM10 or PM2.5) or type of particulate.[7] Measurements can be made using techniques such as gravimetric analysis, beta attenuation monitoring, and tapered element oscillating microbalances.[6] Particulate mass concentration is often used in compliance monitoring for quality assurance, data collection for trend analysis, and high spatial resolution measurements.[6] However, PMC methods may tend to ignore ultrafine particles, because total mass can be dominated by a small number of large particles.[9][4][11]
In number-based measurements, the number of individual particles is counted, independent of their size or mass.[9][11] Particle number concentration can be measured using condensation particle counters,[6] light scattering methods[10] (e.g. optical particle counters[6]), and diffusion charger based instruments.[6] Number concentration measurements can reveal important information about specific types of particles and their distribution over time. Number-based measurements may be particularly useful for identifying ultrafine particles. However, care must be taken to ensure that methods chosen are not biased towards detection of larger particles.[9]
Particle size distributions can be measured by cascade impactors (e.g. gravimetric impactors), scanning mobility particle sizers, aerodynamic particle sizers, fast mobility particle sizers,[6] and electrical low pressure impactors.[12]
Instrument types
Particulate mass concentration (PMC)
Gravimetric mass determination
Gravimetric mass determination of particulate mass concentration is a two-stage process of collection and analysis. Sample collection uses standardized equipment to draw a known volume of air through a filter. The filter is weighed on an analytical balance before and after sampling. Collection may occur over a fixed time period such as 24 hours. The filter is brought back to a laboratory for analysis to determine the concentration of particulate material that it contains. The difference in weight divided by the volume of air pulled through the filter gives the mass concentration of the particulate.[13][4]
In the USA, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets standards for filter-based Federal Reference Methods (FRM) and continuous Federal Equivalency Methods (FEM) for air monitoring.[14] Gravimetric filter-based PM2.5 FRM measurements are considered the gold standard for accuracy of measurement.[14]
Beta Attenuation Monitor
The method of beta attenuation monitoring was introduced in the 1970s.[15] When beta rays pass through a material, high-speed electrons (beta particles) strike against that material and lose energy. This reduction in intensity, or attenuation, can be measured. The more mass in a material, the more particles it will absorb. Given an air sample containing more particulate matter, more beta particles will lose energy and be absorbed.[16][15]
A beta attenuation monitor (BAM) or beta gauge uses the technique of beta-ray absorption or attenuation to measure the mass of particulate matter. A reel to reel filter tape passes through a beta attenuation cell. Air is pulled through the filter tape for a certain period of time, e.g. 42-50 minutes, to collect an air sample. Beta-rays are directed at the tape before and after the air sample is taken to calculate mass. The before-and-after measurements are compared to determine the amount of particulate matter in the sample.[16][15]
Electronic beta attenuation monitors can be used for measurement of particulate mass in the field.[16][15] Although they can be used to make a series of measurements, such devices are stationary, bulky, and costly.[17] Measurements can be affected by fluctuating environmental factors such as high relative humidity and particle composition. Therefore this method has lower accuracy than the gravimetric method, which measures mass directly.[16][15]
Tapered element oscillating microbalance
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Tapered oscillating microbalances were introduced in the 1990s.[15] A tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM) can be used for continuous, real-time detection of particulate matter by measuring mass concentration.[4] However, like BAMs, TEOMs are stationary, bulky, and costly.[17]
A TEOM filter cartridge is mounted on the tip of a hollow glass tube, which is free to vibrate as air is drawn through it. An electrical circuit causes the tube to vibrate. As particulate matter from the air collects on this filter, the tube's frequency of oscillation decreases. The resonant frequency of the tube, or rate at which it vibrates, is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass that collects on the filter. The change in frequency is used to calculate the particle mass. A filter dynamic measurement system (FDMS) can be used to ensure that the filter is periodically cycled and reset to its natural frequency. Factors such as mechanical noise and temperature fluctuations can interfere with the sensor's vibrations and affect the accuracy of its results.[4]
Noise based particulate estimation
Urban traffic is a major source of pollution. Microphone based instruments have been used to monitor noise levels and predict traffic-related particle number concentration (PNC) near roadways. Specific frequency bands (e.g., 40 Hz, 500 Hz, 800 Hz) are associated with the operation of different engines and fuels. Computer systems can be trained to identify patterns in noise and predict pollutant concentrations based on training data. Devices such as sound meters and smartphones, which are small and portable, can then be used to predict particulate levels based on the computer's model. Conditions such as wind, humidity, building characteristics, and specific traffic conditions, can influence both the model and predicted results.[18][19]
Particle number concentration
Optical particle counters
Optical particle counters (OPCs) use light scattering to measure particulate matter by shining a beam of light through an air sample. Types of light sources include focused incandescent lamps, lasers and infrared light emitting diodes (IR LEDs).[4][16] OPCs were introduced in the 1940s[20] and became increasingly used following the invention of lasers in the 1960s.[4] Lasers, which have a more intense light than IR LEDs, can be used to classify both the number and size of particles.[4]
Optical particle counters contain a light source, an intake system to draw in air, an area where a light beam is projected through the air sample, and photodetection sensors to measure the scattered light.[20] A light beam is scattered as it hits individual particulates, changing the intensity, angle, and pattern of the light. Scattering can be precisely described according to Mie theory. The rate of detection can be used to count the number of particulates present, while the intensity of the scattered light can indicate particulate size.[4]
Based on a priori assumptions about particle size and distribution, optical particle counters can be used to estimate mass concentration. Particulates can be classified by size, and algorithms can be used to estimate mass based on the numbers of sizes of particulates present. Proper calibration is essential to ensure that the conditions that are assumed actually apply.[4][16] Some optical particle counters can perform real-time particulate matter measurements comparable to the precision and accuracy of an FEM instrument.[4]
Low-cost particulate matter sensors (LCPMS) are miniaturized and simplified OPCs.[20] While LCPMS still use light scattering techniques, they tend to be less accurate.[4] Their advantages are that they are generally cheaper, smaller, portable, and can be used for real-time measurements.[16][4] LCPMS are used in equipment such as air purifiers, IoT devices and handheld air quality monitoring devices. LCPMS generally require calibration and are highly vulnerable to external factors such as temperature and humidity.[16][4]
Condensation particle counters
A condensation particle counter (CPC) or condensation nucleus counter (CNC) is a modified optical particle counter. It extends the range of the OPC, enabling it to detect and count much smaller particles. Ultrafine particles are passed through a vapor so that larger droplets will condense around the small particle. The larger droplets can then be detected. With conventional optical techniques, particles below 50 nm are generally undetectable.[21] Depending on the vapor and condensation technique used, CPCs are able to detect particles as small as 2 nm. The minimum detectable particle size of a CPC is commonly defined as the diameter at which the CPC detects 50% of the particles.[22]
Condensation particle counters are used for the measurement of both laboratory and on-road vehicle emissions.[23][10][24] Limits for vehicle exhaust particle number (PN) concentrations have been set as part of the European Union's standards for light-duty vehicle emissions.[25][24] To measure vehicle PN, condensation particle counters with a counting efficiency (CE) of 50% at 23 nm are required.[26] CPCs are also used in some workplaces to assess occupational safety. Care must be taken to ensure that environmental measurements will not exceed the range of the CPC.[21]
Diffusion chargers
Different types of particulates can have non-spherical shapes and differing surface areas.[21] Studies of particles within the human respiratory tract, from the 1980-90’s, have shown that surface area and aerodynamic diameter of particles are related to the probability that a particle will remain within the respiratory system and cause harm.[27]
Diffusion chargers (DCs) are direct-reading instruments that use corona discharge from an electrode to measure the active surface area of particles.[21] Diffusion chargers measure particulate matter (PM) by using an electrical current to generate a corona discharge. A current flows from an electrode with a high potential into a neutral surrounding area, such as air, and generates ions that can diffuse to particles in the airstream. Once free ions are removed from the system, the amount of charge that transferred to the remaining particles is measured. The resulting electrical current correlates with the active surface area of the particles.[21][24]
Diffusion chargers are especially effective for detecting nanoparticles, typically in the 10–300 nm range, and measuring lung-deposited surface area (LDSA)[28]. DCs can measure higher particle concentrations than CPCs. Diffusion chargers do not use working fluids and can operate at higher temperatures.[24]
Inertial separators
Particles of different sizes have different health effects. Inertial separators are used to eliminate particles outside of the desired size range. If a gas stream containing particles of different sizes is forced to turn a sharp corner, the inertia of the large particles causes them to separate from the gas stream lines. The larger particles can be collected and removed from the gas stream after collisions with the walls of the vessel.
The two common types of inertial separators are cyclones, which spin the gas stream, causing collisions of the heavier particles with the outside of the cyclone wall, and impactors, where the gas particle stream is directed at a greased metal plate and turned at the last moment, causing the larger particles to stick to the greased plate.
Modern particulate samplers use a volumetric flow control system that pulls air through the particle separator at the velocity required to achieve the desired cutpoint.
For air pollution applications, the definition of "particulate" does not include uncombined water, and water from a particulate sample must be removed before it is weighed. This can be done either by heating the sample to evaporate the water or by placing the sample in a low humidity environment before weighing.