Proto-Circassian language
Reconstructed ancestor of the Circassian languages
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Proto-Circassian (or Proto-Adyghe–Kabardian) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Adyghean and Kabardian languages.
ancestor
| Proto-Circassian | |
|---|---|
| Proto-Adyghe–Kabardian | |
| Reconstruction of | Circassian languages |
Reconstructed ancestor | |
Phonology
| A Circassian dialects family tree. |
Note on Orthography: This article employs Cyrillic characters alongside IPA to assist readers familiar with the Circassian alphabet. However, standard Adyghe orthography contains inconsistencies; notably, the digraph кӏ represents the sound [t͡ʃʼ] despite visually suggesting a velar ejective [kʼ]. To ensure phonetic precision, this article utilizes the following distinctions: чӏ for [t͡ʃʼ], чӏъ for [ʈʂʼ], and кӏь for [kʲʼ].
| Orthographic Convention | |
|---|---|
| This article uses specific Cyrillic notation to resolve ambiguities in the standard alphabet: | |
| чӏ | [t͡ʃʼ] (Standard кӏ) |
| чӏъ | [ʈʂʼ] (Retroflex) |
| кӏь | [kʲʼ] (Palatalized velar) |
Consonants
The consonant system is reconstructed with a four-way phonation contrast in stops and affricates, and a two-way contrast in fricatives.
| Proto- Circassian |
Western Circassian (Adyghe) | Eastern Circassian (Kabardian) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shapsug | Bzhedug | Chemguy | Abzakh | Besleney | Kabardian | |
| b б | b б | b б | ||||
| p п | p п | b б | ||||
| pʰ пʰ | pʰ пʰ | p п | p п | |||
| pʼ пӏ | pʼ пӏ | pʼ пӏ | ||||
| d д | d д | d д | ||||
| t т | t т | d д | ||||
| tʰ тʰ | tʰ тʰ | t т | t т | |||
| tʼ тӏ | tʼ тӏ | tʼ тӏ | ||||
| ɡʲ гь | ɡʲ гь | d͡ʒ дж | ɡʲ гь | d͡ʒ дж (ɡʲ гь in some dialects) | ||
| kʲ кь | kʲ кь | t͡ʃ ч | ɡʲ гь | d͡ʒ дж (ɡʲ гь in some dialects) | ||
| kʲʰ кʰь | kʲʰ кʰь | t͡ʃʰ чʰ | t͡ʃ ч | kʲ кь | t͡ʃ ч (kʲ кь in some dialects) | |
| kʲʼ кӏь | kʲʼ кӏь | t͡ʃʼ чӏ | kʲʼ кӏь | t͡ʃʼ чӏ (kʲʼ кӏь in some dialects) | ||
| ɡʷ гу | ɡʷ гу | ɡʷ гу | ||||
| kʷ ку | kʷ ку | ɡʷ гу | ||||
| kʷʰ кʰу | kʷʰ кʰу | kʷ ку | kʷ ку | |||
| kʷʼ кӏу | kʷʼ кӏу | kʷʼ кӏу | ||||
| q къ | q къ | q къ | ||||
| qʰ кʰъ | qʰ кʰъ | q къ | q͡χ кхъ | |||
| qʷ къу | qʷ къу | qʷ къу | ||||
| qʷʰ кʰъу | qʷʰ кʰъу | qʷ къу | q͡χʷ кхъу | |||
| Proto- Circassian |
Western Circassian | Eastern Circassian | ||||
| Shapsug | Bzhedug | Chemguy | Abzakh | Besleney | Kabardian | |
| d͡z дз | d͡z дз | d͡z дз | ||||
| t͡s ц | t͡s ц | d͡z дз | ||||
| t͡sʰ цʰ | t͡sʰ цʰ | t͡s ц | t͡s ц | |||
| t͡sʼ цӏ | t͡sʼ / sʼ цӏ / сӏ | t͡sʼ цӏ | t͡sʼ цӏ | |||
| d͡ʐʷ джъу | d͡ʐʷ джъу | v в | ||||
| t͡ʂʷ чъу | t͡ʂʷ чъу | v в | ||||
| t͡ɕʷʰ чъʰу | t͡ʂʷʰ чъʰу | t͡ʂʷ чъу | f ф | |||
| d͡ʒ дж | d͡ʒ дж | ʒ ж | d͡ʒ дж | ʒ ж | ||
| t͡ʃ ч | t͡ʃ ч | ʃ ш | d͡ʒ дж | ʒ ж | ||
| t͡ʂ чъ | t͡ʃ ч | t͡ʂ чъ | ʂ шъ | d͡ʐ джъ | ʒ ж | |
| t͡ʃʰ чʰ | ʃʰ шʰ | ʃ ш | t͡ʃ ч | ʃ ш | ||
| t͡ʂʰ чʰъ | ʃʰ шʰ | ʃ ш | t͡ʂ чъ | ʃ ш | ||
| t͡ʃʼ чӏ | t͡ʃʼ чӏ | ɕʼ / ʔʲ щӏ / ӏ | t͡ʃʼ чӏ | ɕʼ щӏ | ||
| t͡ʂʼ чӏъ | t͡ʃʼ чӏ | t͡ʂʼ чӏъ | ɕʼ / ʔʲ щӏ / ӏ | t͡ʂʼ чӏъ | ɕʼ щӏ | |
| Proto- Circassian |
Western Circassian | Eastern Circassian | ||||
| Shapsug | Bzhedug | Chemguy | Abzakh | Besleney | Kabardian | |
| z з | z з | z з | ||||
| s с | s с | s с | ||||
| ʑ жь | ʒ ж | ʑ жь | ʑ жь | |||
| ɕ щ | ʃ ш | ɕ щ | ɕ щ | |||
| ɕʼ шӏ | ʃʼ шӏ | ɕʼ щӏ | ||||
| ʐʷ жъу | ʑʷ жьу | ʐʷ жъу | v в | |||
| ʂʷ шъу | ɕʷ щу | ʂʷ шъу | f ф | |||
| ʂʷʼ шӏу | ʂʷʼ шӏу | fʼ фӏ | ||||
| ʒ ж | ʒ ж | ʒ ж | ʑ жь | |||
| ʐ жъ | ʐ жъ | ʐ жъ | ʑ жь | |||
| ʃ ш | ʃ ш | ʃ ш | ɕ щ | |||
| ʂ шъ | ʂ шъ | ʂ шъ | ɕ щ | |||
| ʃʰ шʰ | ʃʰ шʰ | ʃ ш | ʃ ш | ɕ щ | ||
| ʂʰ шʰъ | ʃʰ шʰ | ʃ ш | ʂ шъ | ɕ щ | ||
| Proto- Circassian |
Western Circassian | Eastern Circassian | ||||
| Shapsug | Bzhedug | Chemguy | Abzakh | Besleney | Kabardian | |
| ɮ л | ɮ л | ɮ л | ||||
| ɬ лъ | ɬ лъ | ɬ лъ | ||||
| ɬʼ лӏ | ɬʼ лӏ | ɬʼ лӏ | ||||
| ɣ г | ɣ г | ɣ г | ||||
| x х | x х | x х | ||||
| xʷ ху | f ф | xʷ ху | ||||
| ʁ гъ | ʁ гъ | ʁ гъ | ||||
| ʁʷ гъу | ʁʷ гъу | ʁʷ гъу | ||||
| χ хъ | χ хъ | χ хъ | ||||
| χʷ хъу | χʷ хъу | χʷ хъу | ||||
| ħ хь | ħ хь | ħ хь | ||||
| m м | m м | m м | ||||
| n н | n н | n н | ||||
| r р | r р | r р | ||||
| w у | w у | w у | ||||
| j й | j й | j й | ||||
| ʔ ӏ | ʔ ӏ | ʔ ӏ | ||||
| ʔʷ ӏу | ʔʷ ӏу | ʔʷ ӏу | ||||
Aspirated consonants to plain
In Proto-Circassian there was a series of aspirated consonants that survived in the Shapsug and Bzhedug dialects, while they became plain consonants in the other dialects (Abzakh, Chemguy, Kabardian).
- pʰ ⟨пʰ⟩ → p ⟨п⟩
- tʰ ⟨тʰ⟩ → t ⟨т⟩
- kʲʰ ⟨кʰь⟩ → t͡ʃ ⟨ч⟩
- kʷʰ ⟨кʰу⟩ → kʷ ⟨ку⟩
- qʰ ⟨кʰъ⟩ → q ⟨къ⟩
- qʷʰ ⟨кʰъу⟩ → qʷ ⟨къу⟩
- t͡sʰ ⟨цʰ⟩ → t͡s ⟨ц⟩
- t͡ɕʷʰ ⟨чʰу⟩ → t͡ɕʷ ⟨чу⟩
- ʃʰ ⟨шʰ⟩ → ʃ ⟨ш⟩
- ʂʰ ⟨шʰъ⟩ → ʂ ⟨шъ⟩
The following table demonstrates the shift from Proto-Circassian (preserved in Shapsug/Bzhedug) to the plain consonants in other dialects.
| Word | Proto Circassian |
Shapsug | Bzhedug | Abzakh Chemguy |
Kabardian |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shift: pʰ → p | |||||
| noise | pʰa ⟨пʰэ⟩ | pʰa ⟨пʰэ⟩ | pʰa ⟨пʰэ⟩ | pa ⟨пэ⟩ | pa ⟨пэ⟩ |
| sharp | pʰaːpsʼa ⟨пʰапсӏэ⟩ | pʰaːpsʼa ⟨пʰапсӏэ⟩ | pʰaːpsʼa ⟨пʰапсӏэ⟩ | paːpt͡sʼa ⟨папцӏэ⟩ | paːpt͡sʼa ⟨папцӏэ⟩ |
| arrogant | pʰaːɣa ⟨пʰагэ⟩ | ⓘ ⟨пʰагэ⟩ | pʰaːɣa ⟨пʰагэ⟩ | paːɣa ⟨пагэ⟩ | paːɣa ⟨пагэ⟩ |
| nose | pʰa ⟨пʰэ⟩ | ⓘ ⟨пʰэ⟩ | pʰa ⟨пʰэ⟩ | pa ⟨пэ⟩ | pa ⟨пэ⟩ |
| Shift: tʰ → t | |||||
| respect | pχaːtʰa ⟨пхъатʰэ⟩ | ⓘ ⟨пхъатʰэ⟩ | pχaːtʰa ⟨пхъатʰэ⟩ | pχaːta ⟨пхъатэ⟩ | - |
| to give | jatʰən ⟨етʰын⟩ | jatʰən ⟨етʰын⟩ | jatʰən ⟨етʰын⟩ | jatən ⟨етын⟩ | jatən ⟨етын⟩ |
| to take | ʃtʰan ⟨штʰэн⟩ | ʃtʰan ⟨штʰэн⟩ | ʃtʰan ⟨штʰэн⟩ | ʃtan ⟨штэн⟩ | ɕtan ⟨щтэн⟩ |
| on | tʰajt ⟨тʰет⟩ | tʰajt ⟨тʰет⟩ | tʰajt ⟨тʰет⟩ | tajt ⟨тет⟩ | tat ⟨тет⟩ |
| smooth | t͡sʼaːʂʷtʰa ⟨цӏашъутʰэ⟩ | t͡sʼaːʂʷtʰa ⟨цӏашъутʰэ⟩ | t͡sʼaːʂʷtʰa ⟨цӏашъутʰэ⟩ | t͡sʼaːʃʷta ⟨цӏашъутэ⟩ | t͡sʼaːfta ⟨цӏафтэ⟩ |
| to be afraid | ɕtʰan ⟨щтʰэн⟩ | ɕtʰan ⟨щтʰэн⟩ | ɕtʰan ⟨щтʰэн⟩ | ɕtan ⟨щтэн⟩ | ɕtan ⟨щтэн⟩ |
| pillow | ʂħaːntʰa ⟨шъхьантʰэ⟩ | ⓘ ⟨шъхьантʰэ⟩ | ʂħaːtʰa ⟨шъхьатʰэ⟩ | ʂħaːnta ⟨шъхьантэ⟩ | ɕħaːnta ⟨щхьантэ⟩ |
| Shift: t͡sʰ → t͡s | |||||
| wool | t͡sʰə ⟨цʰы⟩ | ⓘ ⟨цʰы⟩ | t͡sʰə ⟨цʰы⟩ | t͡sə ⟨цы⟩ | t͡sə ⟨цы⟩ |
| eyelash | nabzət͡sʰ ⟨нэбзыцʰ⟩ | nabzət͡sʰ ⟨нэбзыцʰ⟩ | nabzət͡sʰ ⟨нэбзыцʰ⟩ | nabzət͡s ⟨нэбзыц⟩ | - |
| Shift: ʃʰ → ʃ / ɕ | |||||
| brother | t͡ʃʰə ⟨чʰы⟩ | ʃʰə ⟨шʰы⟩ | ʃʰə ⟨шʰы⟩ | ʃə ⟨шы⟩ | qʷaʃ ⟨къуэш⟩ |
| lame | ɬaːʃʰa ⟨лъашʰэ⟩ | ⓘ ⟨лъашʰэ⟩ | ɬaːʃʰa ⟨лъашʰэ⟩ | ɬaːɕa ⟨лъащэ⟩ | ɬaːʃa ⟨лъашэ⟩ |
| milk | ʃʰa ⟨шʰэ⟩ | ⓘ ⟨шʰэ⟩ | ʃʰa ⟨шʰэ⟩ | ɕa ⟨щэ⟩ | ʃa ⟨шэ⟩ |
| salt | ʃʰəʁʷ ⟨шʰыгъу⟩ | ⓘ ⟨шʰыгъу⟩ | ʃʰəʁʷ ⟨шʰыгъу⟩ | ɕəʁʷ ⟨щыгъу⟩ | ʃəʁʷ ⟨шыгъу⟩ |
| cloud | pʃʰa ⟨пшʰэ⟩ | pʃʰa ⟨пшʰэ⟩ | pʃʰa ⟨пшʰэ⟩ | pɕa ⟨пщэ⟩ | pʃa ⟨пшэ⟩ |
| pus | ʃʰənə ⟨шʰыны⟩ | ⓘ ⟨шʰыны⟩ | ʃʰənə ⟨шʰыны⟩ | ɕənə ⟨щыны⟩ | ʃən ⟨шын⟩ |
| accordion | pʃʰəna ⟨пшʰынэ⟩ | ⓘ ⟨пшʰынэ⟩ | pʃʰəna ⟨пшʰынэ⟩ | pɕəna ⟨пщынэ⟩ | pʃəna ⟨пшынэ⟩ |
| fat | pʃʰarə ⟨пшʰэры⟩ | ⓘ ⟨пшʰэры⟩ | pʃʰarə ⟨пшʰэры⟩ | pɕarə ⟨пщэры⟩ | pʃar ⟨пшэр⟩ |
| wax | ʃʰafə ⟨шʰэфы⟩ | ⓘ ⟨шʰэфы⟩ | ʃʰafə ⟨шʰэфы⟩ | ʃafə ⟨шэфы⟩ | ʃaxʷə ⟨шэху⟩ |
| horse | ʃʰə ⟨шʰы⟩ | ʃʰə ⟨шʰы⟩ | ʃʰə ⟨шʰы⟩ | ʃə ⟨шы⟩ | ʃə ⟨шы⟩ |
| sand | pʃʰaːχʷa ⟨пшʰахъо⟩ | ⓘ ⟨пшʰахъо⟩ | pʃʰaːχʷa ⟨пшʰахъо⟩ | pʃaːχʷa ⟨пшахъо⟩ | pʃaːχʷa ⟨пшахъуэ⟩ |
| story | pʃʰəsa ⟨пшʰысэ⟩ | ⓘ ⟨пшʰысэ⟩ | pʃʰəsa ⟨пшʰысэ⟩ | pʃəsa ⟨пшысэ⟩ | pʃəsa ⟨пшысэ⟩ |
| Shift: kʲʰ → t͡ʃ / t͡ʃʰ | |||||
| spleen | kʲʰa ⟨кьʰэ⟩ | kʲʰa ⟨кьʰэ⟩ | t͡ʃʰa ⟨чʰэ⟩ | t͡ʃa ⟨чэ⟩ | t͡ʃa ⟨чэ⟩ |
| brushwood | kʲʰə ⟨кьʰы⟩ | kʲʰə ⟨кьʰы⟩ | t͡ʃʰə ⟨чʰы⟩ | t͡ʃə ⟨чы⟩ | t͡ʃə ⟨чы⟩ |
| to cough | pskʲʰan ⟨пскьʰэн⟩ | pskʲʰan ⟨пскьʰэн⟩ | pst͡ʃʰan ⟨псчʰэн⟩ | pst͡ʃan ⟨псчэн⟩ | pst͡ʃan ⟨псчэн⟩ |
| Shift: kʷʰ → kʷ | |||||
| thigh | kʷʰa ⟨кʰо⟩ | ⓘ ⟨кʰо⟩ | kʷʰa ⟨кʰо⟩ | kʷa ⟨ко⟩ | kʷa ⟨куэ⟩ |
| middle | kʷʰə ⟨кʰу⟩ | ⓘ ⟨кʰу⟩ | kʷʰə ⟨кʰу⟩ | kʷə ⟨ку⟩ | kʷə ⟨ку⟩ |
| Shift: qʰ → q / q͡χ | |||||
| grave | qʰa ⟨кʰъэ⟩ | ⓘ ⟨кʰъэ⟩ | qʰa ⟨кʰъэ⟩ | qa ⟨къэ⟩ | q͡χa ⟨кхъэ⟩ |
| Shift: qʷʰ → qʷ / q͡χʷ | |||||
| pig | qʷʰa ⟨кʰъо⟩ | ⓘ ⟨кʰъо⟩ | qʷʰa ⟨кʰъо⟩ | qʷa ⟨къо⟩ | q͡χʷa ⟨кхъуэ⟩ |
| cheese | qʷʰaːja ⟨къʰуае⟩ | qʷʰaːja ⟨къʰуае⟩ | qʷʰaːja ⟨къʰуае⟩ | qʷaːja ⟨къуае⟩ | q͡χʷaj ⟨кхъуей⟩ |
| ship | qʷʰaħ ⟨къʰохь⟩ | qʷʰaħ ⟨къʰохь⟩ | qʷʰaħ ⟨къʰохь⟩ | qʷəħa ⟨къухьэ⟩ | q͡χʷəħ ⟨кхъухь⟩ |
| to fart | qaqʷʰəʃʷən ⟨къэкъʰун⟩ | qaqʷʰəʃʷən ⟨къэкъʰун⟩ | qaqʷʰəʃʷən ⟨къэкъʰун⟩ | qaqʷəʃʷən ⟨къэкъушъун⟩ | qat͡səfən ⟨къэцыфын⟩ |
| peer | qʷʰəʐə ⟨къʰужъы⟩ | qʷʰəʐə ⟨къʰужъы⟩ | qʷʰəʐə ⟨къʰужъы⟩ | qʷəʐə ⟨къужъы⟩ | q͡χʷəʑə ⟨кхъужьы⟩ |
| Shift: t͡ɕʷʰ → t͡ʃʷ | |||||
| jungle | t͡ɕʷʰənə ⟨чъʰуны⟩ | t͡ɕʷʰənə ⟨чъʰуны⟩ | t͡ɕʷʰənə ⟨чъʰуны⟩ | t͡ʃʷənə ⟨цуны⟩ | fən ⟨фын⟩ |
Plain voiceless consonants to voiced
In the Proto-Circassian there was a series of tense consonants that became voiced in the eastern dialects.
- p ⟨п⟩ → b ⟨б⟩
- t ⟨т⟩ → d ⟨д⟩
- t͡s ⟨ц⟩ → d͡z ⟨дз⟩
- t͡ɕʷ ⟨цу⟩ → v ⟨в⟩
- kʲ ⟨кь⟩ → ɡʲ ⟨гь⟩ / d͡ʒ ⟨дж⟩
- kʷ ⟨ку⟩ → ɡʷ ⟨гу⟩
- t͡ʃ ⟨ч⟩ → d͡ʒ ⟨дж⟩ / ʒ ⟨ж⟩
- t͡ʂ ⟨чъ⟩ → d͡ʐ ⟨джъ⟩ / ʒ ⟨ж⟩
| Word | Proto Circassian |
Bzhedug Chemguy |
Besleney | Kabardian |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| we | ta ⟨тэ⟩ | ta ⟨тэ⟩ | da ⟨дэ⟩ | da ⟨дэ⟩ |
| leader | tħamaːta ⟨тхьэматэ⟩ | tħamaːta ⟨тхьэматэ⟩ | tħamaːda ⟨тхьэмадэ⟩ | tħamaːda ⟨тхьэмадэ⟩ |
| fish | pt͡saʐəja ⟨пцэжъые⟩ | pt͡saʐəja ⟨пцэжъые⟩ | bd͡zaʐej ⟨бдзэжъей⟩ | bd͡zaʑej ⟨бдзэжьей⟩ |
| glass | aːpkʲ ⟨апкь⟩ | aːpt͡ʃ ⟨апч⟩ | ʔaːbɡʲ ⟨абгь⟩ | ʔaːbd͡ʒ ⟨абдж⟩ |
| chicken | kʲat ⟨кьэт⟩ | t͡ʃatə ⟨чэты⟩ | ɡʲad ⟨гьэд⟩ | d͡ʒad ⟨джэд⟩ |
| night | t͡ʃaɕ ⟨чэщ⟩ | t͡ʃaɕə ⟨чэщы⟩ | d͡ʒaɕ ⟨джэщ⟩ | ʒaɕ ⟨жэщ⟩ |
| village | t͡ʃəɮa ⟨чылэ⟩ | t͡ʃəɮa ⟨чылэ⟩ | d͡ʒəɮa ⟨джылэ⟩ | ʒəɮa ⟨жылэ⟩ |
| cow | t͡ʃam ⟨чэм⟩ | t͡ʃamə ⟨чэмы⟩ | d͡ʒam ⟨джэм⟩ | ʒam ⟨жэм⟩ |
| tree | t͡ʂəɣ ⟨чъыг⟩ | t͡ʂəɣə ⟨чъыгы⟩ | d͡ʐəɣ ⟨джъыг⟩ | ʒəɣ ⟨жыг⟩ |
| mouse | t͡səʁʷa ⟨цыгъо⟩ | t͡səʁʷa ⟨цыгъо⟩ | d͡zəʁʷa ⟨дзыгъуэ⟩ | d͡zəʁʷa ⟨дзыгъуэ⟩ |
| short | kʲʼaːkʷa ⟨кӏьако⟩ | t͡ʃʼaːkʷa ⟨кӏако⟩ | kʲʼaːɡʷa ⟨кӏьагуэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼaːɡʷa ⟨кӏагуэ⟩ |
| wheat | kʷat͡s ⟨коц⟩ | kʷat͡sə ⟨коцы⟩ | ɡʷad͡z ⟨гуэдз⟩ | ɡʷad͡z ⟨гуэдз⟩ |
The Two Major Shifts
Historically, Proto-Circassian possessed a distinct series of stops and affricates. This inventory included palatalized velars and a contrast between retroflex and postalveolar affricates:
Postalveolar affricates:
Retroflex affricates:
Palatalized velars:
The evolution of these consonants into modern dialects occurred in two major phases: Spirantization (Phase 1) and Velar Palatalization (Phase 2).
Phase 1: Spirantization (Affricate to Fricative)
In Phase 1, the original Proto-Circassian affricate postalveolar consonants and retroflex consonants underwent spirantization, becoming fricatives.
- Affected Dialects: Abzakh, Modern Standard Kabardian, and archaic Kabardian dialects.
- Unaffected Dialects: Shapsug, Bzhedug, Chemguy, and Besleney.
The shifts were:
- d͡ʒ ⟨дж⟩ → ʒ ⟨ж⟩
- t͡ʃ ⟨ч⟩ → ʃ ⟨ш⟩ / ʒ ⟨ж⟩
- t͡ʃʼ ⟨чӏ⟩ → ɕʼ ⟨щӏ⟩
- t͡ʂ ⟨чъ⟩ → ʂ ⟨шъ⟩ / ʒ ⟨ж⟩
- t͡ʂʼ ⟨чӏъ⟩ → ɕʼ ⟨щӏ⟩
In Abzakh, a specific variation occurred where t͡ʃʼ ⟨чӏ⟩ often became a glottal stop ʔʲ ⟨ӏь⟩.
Examples of Phase 1 shifts:
- The Proto-Circassian word чӏэкӏьын "to come out from under" became щӏэкӏьын in Proto-Kabardian and ӏекӏьын in Proto-Abzakh.
- The Proto-Circassian word чӏэгъуэжьын "to regret" became щӏэгъуэжын in Kabardian & ӏегъуэжьын Abzakh.
- The Proto-Circassian word пачӏэ "mustache" became пащӏэ in both Kabardian & Abzakh.
- The Proto-Circassian word чӏалэ "boy; young man" became щӏалэ in Kabardian and ӏелэ in Abzakh.
- The Proto-Circassian word чӏымахуэ "winter" became щӏымахуэ in Kabardian and щӏымафэ in Abzakh.
- The Proto-Circassian word чӏэ "new" became щӏэ in both Kabardian & Abzakh.
However, in dialects affected only by Phase 1 (like some archaic Kabardian dialects) or both phases (Standard Kabardian/Abzakh), words containing the original palatalized velars were initially unaffected. Words like кӏьапсэ "rope", кӏьэрахъуэ "gun" & кӏьэ "tail" were still pronounced with kʲʼ.
The following table demonstrates the Phase 1 shift (Affricate → Fricative), showing how Abzakh and Standard Kabardian innovated while Bzhedug, Chemguy, and Besleney remained conservative regarding these specific consonants.
| Word | Proto Circassian |
Bzhedug Chemguy (No Phase 1) |
Besleney (No Phase 1) |
Abzakh (Phase 1 affected) |
Standard Kabardian (Phase 1 affected) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| fox | baːd͡ʒa ⟨баджэ⟩ | baːd͡ʒa ⟨баджэ⟩ | baːd͡ʒa ⟨баджэ⟩ | baːʒa ⟨бажэ⟩ | baːʒa ⟨бажэ⟩ |
| village | qʷaːd͡ʒa ⟨къуаджэ⟩ | qʷaːd͡ʒa ⟨къуаджэ⟩ | qʷaːd͡ʒa ⟨къуаджэ⟩ | qʷaːʒa ⟨къуажэ⟩ | qʷaːʒa ⟨къуажэ⟩ |
| village | t͡ʃəɮa ⟨чылэ⟩ | t͡ʃəɮa ⟨чылэ⟩ | d͡ʒəɮa ⟨джылэ⟩ | ʃəɮa ⟨шылэ⟩ | ʒəɮa ⟨жылэ⟩ |
| night | t͡ʃaɕ ⟨чэщ⟩ | t͡ʃaɕə ⟨чэщы⟩ | d͡ʒaɕ ⟨джэщ⟩ | ʃaɕə ⟨шэщы⟩ | ʒaɕ ⟨жэщ⟩ |
| cow | t͡ʃam ⟨чэм⟩ | t͡ʃamə ⟨чэмы⟩ | d͡ʒam ⟨джэм⟩ | ʃamə ⟨шэмы⟩ | ʒam ⟨жэм⟩ |
| new | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ | ʃʼa ⟨шӏэ⟩ | ɕʼa ⟨щӏэ⟩ |
| winter | t͡ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨чӏымахо⟩ | t͡ʃʼəmaːfa ⟨чӏымафэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨чӏымахуэ⟩ | ʃʼəmaːfa ⟨шӏымафэ⟩ | ɕʼəmaːxʷa ⟨щӏымахуэ⟩ |
| young-man | t͡ʃʼaːɮa ⟨чӏалэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼaːɮa ⟨чӏалэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼaːɮa ⟨чӏалэ⟩ | ʔʲaːɮa ⟨ӏелэ⟩ | ɕʼaːɮa ⟨щӏалэ⟩ |
| to sleep | t͡ʂəjan ⟨чъыен⟩ | t͡ʂəjan ⟨чъыен⟩ | d͡ʐajən ⟨джъеин⟩ | ʂəjan ⟨шъыен⟩ | ʒajən ⟨жеин⟩ |
| tree | t͡ʂəɣ ⟨чъыг⟩ | t͡ʂəɣə ⟨чъыгы⟩ | d͡ʐəɣ ⟨джъыг⟩ | ʂəɣə ⟨шъыгы⟩ | ʒəɣ ⟨жыг⟩ |
| to run | t͡ʂan ⟨чъэн⟩ | t͡ʂan ⟨чъэн⟩ | d͡ʐan ⟨джъэн⟩ | tʂan ⟨шъэн⟩ | ʒan ⟨жэн⟩ |
| area | t͡ʂʼəpʼa ⟨чӏыпӏэ⟩ | t͡ʂʼəpʼa ⟨чӏыпӏэ⟩ | t͡ʂʼəpʼa ⟨чӏыпӏэ⟩ | ʃʼəpʼa ⟨шӏыпӏэ⟩ | ɕʼəpʼa ⟨щӏыпӏэ⟩ |
| iron | ʁʷət͡ʂʼə ⟨гъучӏы⟩ | ʁʷət͡ʂʼə ⟨гъучӏы⟩ | ʁʷət͡ʂʼə ⟨гъучӏы⟩ | ʃʼəpʼa ⟨гъушӏы⟩ | ɕʼəpʼa ⟨гъущӏы⟩ |
Phase 2: Velar Palatalization
Later on, Phase 2 occurred. In this phase, the palatalized velar consonants гь [ɡʲ], кь [kʲ] and кӏь [kʲʼ] became palato-alveolar consonants дж [d͡ʒ], ч [t͡ʃ] and чӏ [t͡ʃʼ] respectively.
- Affected Dialects: Abzakh, Bzhedug, Chemguy, and Modern Standard Kabardian.
- Unaffected Dialects: Shapsug, Besleney, and archaic Kabardian dialects.
The shifts were:
In dialects affected by Phase 2, words like чӏапсэ "rope", чӏэрахъуэ "gun" & чӏэ "tail" are now pronounced with t͡ʃʼ.
| Word | Proto Circassian |
Shapsug (No Phase 2) |
Bzhedug Chemguy Abzakh (Phase 2 affected) |
Besleney (No Phase 2) |
Kabardian (Phase 2 affected) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shift: kʲ → t͡ʃ | |||||
| to cough | pskʲʰan ⟨пскʰьэн⟩ | pskʲʰan ⟨пскʰьэн⟩ | pst͡ʃan ⟨псчэн⟩ | pskʲan ⟨пскьэн⟩ | pst͡ʃan ⟨псчэн⟩ |
| throat | kʲəj ⟨кьый⟩ | kʲəj ⟨кьый⟩ | t͡ʃəj ⟨чый⟩ | kʲəj ⟨кьий⟩ | t͡ʃəj ⟨чий⟩ |
| spleen | kʲa ⟨кьэ⟩ | kʲa ⟨кьэ⟩ | t͡ʃa ⟨чэ⟩ | kʲa ⟨кьэ⟩ | t͡ʃa ⟨чэ⟩ |
| glass | aːpkʲ ⟨апкь⟩ | aːpkʲ ⟨апкь⟩ | aːpt͡ʃ ⟨апч⟩ | ʔaːbɡʲ ⟨абгь⟩ | ʔaːbd͡ʒ ⟨абдж⟩ |
| chicken | kʲat ⟨кьэт⟩ | kʲat ⟨кьэт⟩ | t͡ʃatə ⟨чэты⟩ | ɡʲad ⟨гьэд⟩ | d͡ʒad ⟨джэд⟩ |
| Shift: ɡʲ → d͡ʒ | |||||
| game | ɡʲaɡʷ ⟨гьэгу⟩ | ɡʲaɡʷ ⟨гьэгу⟩ | d͡ʒaɡʷ ⟨джэгу⟩ | ɡʲaɡʷ ⟨гьэгу⟩ | d͡ʒaɡʷ ⟨джэгу⟩ |
| shirt | ɡʲaːna ⟨гьанэ⟩ | ɡʲaːna ⟨гьанэ⟩ | d͡ʒaːna ⟨джанэ⟩ | ɡʲaːna ⟨гьанэ⟩ | d͡ʒaːna ⟨джанэ⟩ |
| to study | jaɡʲan ⟨егьэн⟩ | jaɡʲan ⟨егьэн⟩ | jad͡ʒan ⟨еджэн⟩ | jaɡʲan ⟨егьэн⟩ | jad͡ʒan ⟨еджэн⟩ |
| sick | səmaːɡʲa ⟨сымагьэ⟩ | səmaːɡʲa ⟨сымагьэ⟩ | səmaːd͡ʒa ⟨сымаджэ⟩ | səmaːɡʲa ⟨сымагьэ⟩ | səmaːd͡ʒa ⟨сымаджэ⟩ |
| evil | bzaːɡʲa ⟨бзагьэ⟩ | bzaːɡʲa ⟨бзагьэ⟩ | bzaːd͡ʒa ⟨бзаджэ⟩ | bzaːɡʲa ⟨бзагьэ⟩ | bzaːd͡ʒa ⟨бзаджэ⟩ |
| bitter | dəɡʲ ⟨дыгь⟩ | dəɡʲə ⟨дыгьы⟩ | dəd͡ʒə ⟨дыджы⟩ | dəɡʲ ⟨дыгь⟩ | dəd͡ʒ ⟨дыдж⟩ |
| Shift: kʲʼ → t͡ʃʼ | |||||
| short | kʲʼaːkʷa ⟨кӏьако⟩ | kʲʼaːkʷa ⟨кӏьако⟩ | t͡ʃʼaːkʷa ⟨чӏако⟩ | kʲʼaːɡʷa ⟨кӏьагуэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼaːɡʷa ⟨чӏагуэ⟩ |
| rope | kʲʼaːpsa ⟨кӏьапсэ⟩ | kʲʼaːpsa ⟨кӏьапсэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼaːpsa ⟨чӏапсэ⟩ | kʲʼaːpsa ⟨кӏьапсэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼaːpsa ⟨чӏапсэ⟩ |
| egg | kʲʼankʲʼa ⟨кӏьэнкӏьэ⟩ | kʲʼaːkʲʼa ⟨кӏьакӏьэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼant͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэнчӏэ⟩ | ɡʲadəkʲʼa ⟨гьэдыкӏэ⟩ | d͡ʒadət͡ʃʼa ⟨джэдыкӏэ⟩ |
| gun | kʲʼaraːχʷa ⟨кӏьэрахъуэ⟩ | kʲʼaraːχʷa ⟨кӏьэрахъуэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼaraːχʷa ⟨чӏэрахъо⟩ | kʲʼaraːχʷa ⟨кӏьэрахъуэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼaraːχʷa ⟨кӏэрахъуэ⟩ |
| key | ʔʷənkʲʼəbza ⟨ӏункӏьыбзэ⟩ | ʔʷənkʲʼəbza ⟨ӏункӏьыбзэ⟩ | ʔʷənt͡ʃʼəbza ⟨ӏунчӏыбзэ⟩ | ʔʷənkʲʼəbza ⟨ӏункӏьыбзэ⟩ | ʔʷənt͡ʃʼəbz ⟨ӏунчӏыбз⟩ |
| ceiling | kʲʼaːʃʷa ⟨кӏьашъо⟩ | kʲʼaːʃʷa ⟨кӏьашъо⟩ | t͡ʃʼaːʃʷa ⟨чӏашъо⟩ | kʲʼaːfa ⟨кӏьафэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼaːfa ⟨чӏафэ⟩ |
| beard | ʑaːkʲʼa ⟨жьа кӏьэ⟩ | ʑaːkʲʼa ⟨жьа кӏьэ⟩ | ʒaːt͡ʃʼa ⟨жачӏэ⟩ | ʑaːkʲʼa ⟨жьакӏьэ⟩ | ʑaːt͡ʃʼa ⟨жьачӏэ⟩ |
| tail | kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ | kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ | kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ |
| to kill | wkʲʼən ⟨укӏьын⟩ | wkʲʼən ⟨укӏьын⟩ | wt͡ʃʼən ⟨учӏын⟩ | wkʲʼən ⟨укӏьын⟩ | wt͡ʃʼən ⟨учӏын⟩ |
Summary of Dialectal Evolution
The dialects can be categorized by which phases they underwent:
- Shapsug & Besleney: Not affected by Phase 1 or Phase 2. They retain the most archaic features, keeping distinct palatalized velars and affricates.
- Bzhedug & Chemguy: Not affected by Phase 1, but affected by Phase 2. They retain the original affricates but shifted the velars, resulting in a merger.
- Some Kabardian dialects (e.g. Uzunyayla): Affected by Phase 1 but not Phase 2. They spirantized the affricates but kept the palatalized velars.
- Abzakh & Modern Standard Kabardian: Affected by both Phase 1 and Phase 2. They spirantized the original affricates (Phase 1) and then shifted the velars to become the new affricates (Phase 2).
The following table illustrates the distinction between the original postalveolar affricate (affected by Phase 1) and the original palatalized velar (affected by Phase 2) across the dialects.
| Word | Proto Circassian |
Shapsug (No Phases) |
Besleney (No Phases) |
Bzhedug Chemguy (Phase 2 Only) |
Some Kabardian dialects (Phase 1 Only) |
Abzakh (Both Phases) |
Standard Kabardian (Both Phases) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| tail | kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ | kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ | kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ | kʲʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ |
| new | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼa ⟨кӏьэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼa ⟨чӏэ⟩ | ʃʼa ⟨щӏэ⟩ | ʃʼa ⟨щӏэ⟩ | ʃʼa ⟨щӏэ⟩ |
| winter | t͡ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨чӏымахуэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼəmaːfa ⟨чӏымафэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨чӏымахуэ⟩ | t͡ʃʼəmaːfa ⟨чӏымафэ⟩ | ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨щӏымахуэ⟩ | ʃʼəmaːfa ⟨щӏымафэ⟩ | ʃʼəmaːxʷa ⟨щӏымахуэ⟩ |
| mustache | paːt͡ʃʼa ⟨пачӏэ⟩ | paːt͡ʃʼa ⟨пачӏэ⟩ | paːt͡ʃʼa ⟨пачӏэ⟩ | paːt͡ʃʼa ⟨пачӏэ⟩ | paːʃʼa ⟨пащӏэ⟩ | paːʃʼa ⟨пащӏэ⟩ | paːʃʼa ⟨пащӏэ⟩ |
Introduction of Labiodental Fricatives
Proto-Circassian lacked the labiodental fricatives: the voiceless labiodental fricative [f] and the voiced labiodental fricative [v]. These sounds developed independently in the Western (Adyghe) and Eastern (Kabardian) dialects from completely different phonological sources.
In summary:
- Western Dialects derived [f] from the velar [xʷ].
- Eastern Dialects derived [f] and [v] from labialized sibilants (t͡ɕʷ, ɕʷ, ʑʷ).
Western Shift (Velar to Labiodental)
In Western Circassian dialects (such as Abzakh, Bzhedug, Chemguy, and Shapsug), the Proto-Circassian labialized voiceless velar fricative [xʷ] ⟨ху⟩ shifted to the voiceless labiodental fricative [f] ⟨ф⟩.
In Eastern dialects (Kabardian and Besleney), this consonant remained a velar [xʷ].
| Word | Proto Circassian |
Western (Shifted) |
Eastern (Retained) |
|---|---|---|---|
| human | t͡sʼəxʷ ⟨цӏыху⟩ | t͡sʼəf ⟨цӏыф⟩ | t͡sʼəxʷ ⟨цӏыху⟩ |
| white | xʷəʑ ⟨хужь⟩ | fəʑə ⟨фыжьы⟩ | xʷəʑ ⟨хужь⟩ |
| hot | xʷaːba ⟨хуабэ⟩ | faːba ⟨фабэ⟩ | xʷaːba ⟨хуабэ⟩ |
| day | maːxʷa ⟨махо⟩ | maːfa ⟨мафэ⟩ | maːxʷa ⟨махуэ⟩ |
Eastern Shift (Sibilant to Labiodental)
In Eastern Circassian dialects, a series of Proto-Circassian labialized postalveolar consonants (t͡ɕʷ, ʑʷ, ɕʷ, ɕʷʼ) shifted to become labiodental consonants.
In Western dialects, these consonants retained their original sibilant nature (pronounced as t͡ɕʷ, ʑʷ, ɕʷ, ɕʷʼ).
The specific shifts in Eastern dialects were:
| Word | Proto Circassian |
Western (Retained) |
Eastern (Shifted) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shift: t͡ɕʷ → v | |||
| ox | t͡ɕʷə ⟨цу⟩ | t͡ɕʷə ⟨цу⟩ | və ⟨вы⟩ |
| shoe | t͡ɕʷaːqa ⟨цуакъэ⟩ | t͡ɕʷaːqa ⟨цуакъэ⟩ | vaːqa ⟨вакъэ⟩ |
| Shift: ʑʷ → v | |||
| star | ʑʷaːʁʷa ⟨жъуагъо⟩ | ʑʷaːʁʷa ⟨жъуагъо⟩ | vaːʁʷa ⟨вагъуэ⟩ |
| stone | məʑʷa ⟨мыжъо⟩ | məʑʷa ⟨мыжъо⟩ | məva ⟨мывэ⟩ |
| narrow | zaʑʷə ⟨зэжъу⟩ | zaʑʷə ⟨зэжъу⟩ | zavə ⟨зэвы⟩ |
| Shift: ɕʷ → f | |||
| you (pl.) | ɕʷa ⟨шъо⟩ | ɕʷa ⟨шъо⟩ | fa ⟨фэ⟩ |
| honey | ɕʷaw ⟨шъоу⟩ | ɕʷaw ⟨шъоу⟩ | faw ⟨фо⟩ |
| wife | ɕʷəz ⟨шъуз⟩ | ɕʷəz ⟨шъуз⟩ | fəz ⟨фыз⟩ |
| Shift: ɕʷʼ → fʼ | |||
| black | ɕʷʼət͡sʼa ⟨шӏуцӏэ⟩ | ɕʷʼət͡sʼa ⟨шӏуцӏэ⟩ | fʼət͡sʼa ⟨фӏыцӏэ⟩ |
| fire | maːɕʷʼa ⟨машӏо⟩ | maːɕʷʼa ⟨машӏо⟩ | maːfʼa ⟨мафӏэ⟩ |
| dirty | ɕʷʼajə ⟨шӏои⟩ | ɕʷʼajə ⟨шӏои⟩ | fʼaj ⟨фӏей⟩ |
Divergence Example: "Light" vs. "Blind"
An interesting consequence of these opposing phonological shifts is the divergence of the words for "light" and "blind".
Proto-Circassian possessed two distinct words:
Due to the different sources of the labiodental [f] in the dialects, these words shifted in opposite directions:
- In Western (Adyghe): The velar xʷ became f. Therefore, "light" became ⟨нэф⟩. The sibilant ɕʷ was retained, so "blind" remained ⟨нэшъу⟩.
- In Eastern (Kabardian): The sibilant ɕʷ became f. Therefore, "blind" became ⟨нэф⟩. The velar xʷ was retained, so "light" remained ⟨нэху⟩.
As a result, the word ⟨нэф⟩ is a "false friend" between the dialects: it means light in Adyghe, but blind in Kabardian.
| Meaning | Proto-Circassian | Western (Adyghe) | Eastern (Kabardian) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shift | Result | Shift | Result | ||
| Light | naxʷ ⟨нэху⟩ | xʷ → f | naf ⟨нэф⟩ | (Retained) | naxʷ ⟨нэху⟩ |
| Blind | naɕʷ ⟨нэшъу⟩ | (Retained) | naɕʷ ⟨нэшъу⟩ | ɕʷ → f | naf ⟨нэф⟩ |
Morphological Impact: Benefactive vs. Malefactive Prefixes
The phonological shifts also affected grammatical prefixes, creating distinct forms for the Benefactive and Malefactive prefixes in the modern dialects.
In Proto-Circassian, these prefixes were distinct:
- Benefactive ("for"): xʷa ⟨хуэ⟩ — containing the velar xʷ.
- Malefactive ("to the detriment of"): ɕʷʼa ⟨шӏуэ⟩ — containing the ejective sibilant ɕʷʼ.
Due to the shifts:
- In Western (Adyghe): The Benefactive xʷa became fa ⟨фэ⟩, while the Malefactive ɕʷʼa was retained as ⟨шӏуэ⟩.
- In Eastern (Kabardian): The Benefactive xʷa was retained as ⟨хуэ⟩, while the Malefactive ɕʷʼa shifted to fʼa ⟨фӏэ⟩.
| Function | Proto Circassian |
Western (Adyghe) | Eastern (Kabardian) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Benefactive (for someone's sake) |
xʷa- ⟨хуэ-⟩ | fa- ⟨фэ-⟩ | xʷa- ⟨хуэ-⟩ |
| Malefactive (to someone's detriment) |
ɕʷʼa- ⟨шӏуэ-⟩ | ɕʷʼa- ⟨шӏуэ-⟩ | fʼa- ⟨фӏэ-⟩ |
Examples of verbs utilizing these prefixes:
| Meaning | Proto Circassian |
Western (Adyghe) | Eastern (Kabardian) |
|---|---|---|---|
| to go for someone's sake | xʷakʷʼan ⟨хуэкӏуэн⟩ | fakʷʼan ⟨фэкӏон⟩ | xʷakʷʼan ⟨хуэкӏуэн⟩ |
| to lose (lit. to go from someone) |
ɕʷʼakʷʼan ⟨шӏуэкӏуэн⟩ | ɕʷʼakʷʼan ⟨шӏуэкӏон⟩ | fʼakʷʼan ⟨фӏэкӏуэн⟩ |
| to take for someone's sake | xʷaħən ⟨хуэхьын⟩ | faħən ⟨фэхьын⟩ | xʷaħən ⟨хуэхьын⟩ |
| to take away from (forcefully) |
ɕʷʼaħən ⟨шӏуэхьын⟩ | ɕʷʼaħən ⟨шӏуэхьын⟩ | fʼaħən ⟨фӏэхьын⟩ |
Grammar
Numbers
| English | Proto-Circassian | Ubykh | Western Circassian | Kabardian | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | Cyrillic | IPA | Cyrillic | IPA | Cyrillic | IPA | Cyrillic | |
| One | zə | зы | za | зэ | zə | зы | zə | зы |
| Two | tʷʼə | тӏу | tʼqʷʼa | ткъӏуа | tʷʼə | тӏу | tʷʼə | тӏу |
| Three | ɕə | щы | ʂa | шъа | ɕə | щы | ɕə | щы |
| Four | pɬʼə | плӏы | pʼɬʼə | плӏы | pɬʼə | плӏы | pɬʼə | плӏы |
| Five | txʷə | тху | ɕxə | щхы | tfə | тфы | txʷə | тху |
| Six | xə | хы | fə | фы | xə | хы | xə | хы |
| Seven | bɮə | блы | blə | бльы | bɮə | блы | bɮə | блы |
| Eight | jə | и | ʁʷa | гъуа | jə | и | jə | и |
| Nine | bʁʷə | бгъу | bʁʲə | бгъьу | bʁʷə | бгъу | bʁʷə | бгъу |
| Ten | pʃʼə | пшӏы | ʑʷə | жъуы | pʃʼə | пшӏы | pɕʼə | пщӏы |
Schleicher's fable
Schleicher's fable in Proto-Circassian:
χʷǝ č́ʷara-gjǝ
χʷǝ ja laśʷam mә q́ˤ:an
č́ʷara pǝʎ́an;
mǝ χwanǝta k:ʷǝm q:irǝ,
mǝ čʷǝχʷa čʷam,
mǝ ć̣ǝm pasa mǝš́ʷrǝ.
χʷǝ č́ʷara q̇́ˤan:
"źǝʁʷǝ sā ǵʷǝ,
q:ać̣am ć̣arǝ č́ʷara ḳ́ʷarǝ."
č́ʷara q̇́ˤan: "q:́ˤʷa χʷǝ!
źǝʁʷǝ š́a ǵʷǝ ć̣arǝ,
q:ać̣a, ł́a, č́ʷara laśʷam
ʎ́ʷa ḳ́ač̣ʷǝm čǝ-wǝ,
χʷiara-gjǝ laśʷam mә q́ˤ:a."
nǝ q:́aˤʷasa χʷǝ rǝq:ʷada q:ˤʷan.
See also
