Siege of Rome (549–550)

Following the fall of Ravenna in May 540 AD, Belisarius restored Sicily and most of the Italian peninsula to Byzantine rule. His stratagem of inducing the Goths to surrender by offering him the Western imperial crown alarmed Emperor Justinian, who recalled him to Constantinople with Ravenna's treasury and the captive king Vitiges but denied him a triumph and reassigned him to the eastern front in advance of the Lazic War (541–562).^[2] Belisarius was replaced by three coequal commanders, whose rivalry and corruption led to indiscipline and plundering of the Italian countryside.^[3] Justinian's harsh tax audit to recover alleged Gothic-era arrears, combined with reduced rewards for wounded and distinguished soldiers, further alienated troops and civilians, collapsing morale and eroding Italian loyalty.^[4][5][6]

Byzantine misrule strengthened the Goths under Ildibad, who defeated a Byzantine force at the Battle of Treviso and recovered much of the Po Valley. His reign was short-lived because he was assassinated before consolidating his power. The reign of Eraric followed, but it ended with his murder in late 541, because he secretly offered to abdicate and offer the kingdom to the Byzantines in exchange for the rank of patrician and a large payment. Through the turmoil among the Gothic aristocracy, Ildibad's nephew Totila became king.^[7][8][9] Reprimanded by Justinian for inaction to exploit Gothic disunity, the Byzantine commanders assembled to decide on a course of action. They decided to besiege Verona, however, they failed to capture of Verona due to divided leadership. Totila took the initiative and pursued them and defeated a larger Byzantine army at the Battle of Faventia in spring 542.^[10][11] Advancing on Florence, Totila again routed Byzantine relief forces at the Battle of Mucellium. The Byzantines withdrew into fortified cities, while Totila bypassed central Italy and advanced rapidly to capture territories in southern Italy with the fall of Naples in March 543.^[12][13]

Totila steadily expanded his control over Italy by combining military success with conciliatory policies toward the Italian population, presenting himself as a liberator from Byzantine exactions. In the meantime, a plague (541–549) weakened the Byzantine empire's ability to field armies, and one third of its population was killed.^[14] By 543–544, much of southern and central Italy had fallen under Gothic control, leaving Byzantine control confined to a few fortified cities. Rome, poorly supplied and neglected by imperial authorities, was blockaded and captured by Totila in December 546, following famine and internal betrayal. Although the city was partially depopulated and its defenses deteriorated, Totila refrained from destroying it, seeking to exploit its symbolic value in negotiations. He offered peace to Justinian on moderate terms, proposing recognition of Gothic rule in Italy in exchange for nominal imperial suzerainty; Justinian rejected these overtures.^[15] Totila lost control of Rome in 547 by a swift Byzantine counter-offensive while he was away from the city. With diplomacy exhausted and Byzantine relief efforts faltering, Totila besieged Rome in June 549.^[16][17][18]

In 549, Totila marched his main army against Rome and chose to blockade the city. It was defended by 3,000 selected troops under Diogenes, a former bodyguard of Belisarius appointed before his departure. Although Byzantine forces were stationed at Portus and Centumcellae, they failed to provide effective support. Diogenes had grain planted throughout the city within the walls, ensuring a food supply, and he enforced strict discipline. Repeated Gothic assaults were repelled. However, the situation worsened when the Goths captured Portus, cutting off Byzantine access to future supplies.^[1]

After a long siege, some Isaurian guards at the Gate of St. Paul, angry over years of unpaid wages and envious of fellow Isaurians rewarded by Totila, secretly agreed to betray Rome. Totila had encouraged this by using Isaurians in his army to flaunt their success. On the night of 16 January 550, the Goths staged a diversion by sending boats along the Tiber and sounding trumpets, diverting the Byzantine defenders away from their positions. The Isaurians then opened the gate, allowing the Goths to enter and massacre a significant number of citizens, further reducing the population of Rome that was a shadow of its former self.^[19] Some escaped in the dark, however, those fleeing toward Centumcellae were killed in ambushes. Diogenes survived despite being wounded. A Byzantine commander, Paulus, and his 400 horsemen held the Tomb of Hadrian and repelled a Gothic assault at dawn. Totila then chose to starve them. The defenders only had their horses as a food source, but instead of eating them, they prepared to die fighting. Totila observed this and offered them generous terms: surrender and leave unarmed, or join his army with their property. Distrusting the first option and resentful over unpaid wages, most chose to enter Gothic service. Only Paulus and one Isaurian departed, while another 300 soldiers who had taken refuge in churches also joined Totila.^[20]

Totila was determined not to lose Rome again. He settled Goths in the city and brought back the Senate, along with senators and other captives held in Campania. Totila holding Rome as the capital of his kingdom strengthened his legitimacy. According to contemporary historian Procopius, he did so because a Frankish king refused him a marriage alliance, claiming he was not truly king of Italy without Rome. Totila staged horse races and presided over them in imperial fashion, before preparing his army for a campaign against Sicily.^[21]

As early as 549, the Emperor Justinian I planned to dispatch an army to Italy to conclude the war with the Goths. It started with the cousin of Justinian, Germanus, who had started recruiting an army for this purpose.^[22] Germanus's sudden death in 550 resulted in a temporary postponement as Justinian delayed in selecting a replacement for the commander-in-chief for the campaign. During 550–551, an expeditionary force strong enough to remove the Goths from Italy was gradually assembled at Salona at Dalmatia, comprising regular Byzantine units and several contingents of foreign allies, notably Lombards, Heruls, and Bulgars.^[23] The Byzantine chamberlain (cubicularius) Narses was appointed to command in mid–551.^[24]

Narses moved by land to Italy and headed straight to Rome, forcing Totila to intercept him. At the Battle of Taginae, the Goths were defeated, and Totila was mortally wounded. Narses and his troops entered Rome in July 552 or 553, and the keys of its gates were delivered to Justinian.^[25] In 553, the new king of the Goths, Teias, was defeated and killed at the Battle of Mons Lactarius (near Mount Vesuvius) by Byzantines under Narses. After this, the Goths failed to appoint a new king, exposing the fragility of their remaining power.^[26][27] Narses quickly captured a number of cities that lacked Goth garrisons, including Florence, Centumcellae, Volaterrae, and Pisa.^[28]

The defeat of the Goths triggered another request from the Goths north of the River Po to the Franks to intervene. A 75,000-strong Frankish army, under Alamannic dukes Lothar and Buccelin, moved south to Italy in the following year. While the Franks outnumbered the Byzantines, the Byzantines had better supplies and fortifications. In October 554, Narses defeated the Franks in the Battle of Volturno, eliminating them as a threat.^[29] The remaining cities in Italy under the Goths started to fall, notable cities were Campsa in 555 and Verona in 561.^[30]

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