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Quick facts Cat, Conservation status ...

Cat
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`pwd` Battus I of Cyrene 1983 in the United Kingdom http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOT_PAPERS#NOT_PAPERS^[1]

1911

Sparta was in ancient Greece the main alternative to the Athenian democracy. Sparta was the partner of Athens in the Persian wars and its opponent in the Peloponnesian War. Battle of Lubiszewo

The article

1.History

5th Century BCE

But after the Persian Wars the Spartan supremacy could no longer remain unchallenged. Sparta had despatched an army in 490 to aid Athens in repelling the armament sent against it by Darius under the command of Datis and Artaphernes: but it arrived after the battle of Marathon had been fought and the issue of the conflict decided.

In the second campaign, conducted ten years later by Xerxes in person, Sparta took a more active share and assumed the command of the combined Greek forces by sea and land. Yet, in spite of the heroic defence of Thermopylae by the Spartan king Leo’ nidas (qv.), the glory of the decisive victory at Salamis fell in great measure to the Athenians, and their patriotism, self-sacrifice and energy contrasted strongly with the hesitation of the Spartans and the selfish policy which they advocated of defending the Peloponnese only.

By the battle of Plataea

By the battle of Plataea (479 B.C.), won by a Spartan general, and decided chiefly by the steadfastness of Spartan troops, the state partially recovered its prestige, but only so far as land operations were concerned: the victory of Mycale, won in the same year, was achieved by the united Greek fleet, and the capture of Sestos, which followed, was due to the Athenians, the Peloponnesians having returned home before the siege was begun. Sparta felt that an effort was necessary to recover her position, and Pausanias, the victor of Plataea, was sent out as admiral of the Greek fleet. But though he won considerable successes, his overbearing and despotic behaviour and the suspicion that he was intriguing with the Persian king alienated the sympathies of those under his command: he was recalled by the ephors, and his successor, Dorcis, was a weak man who allowed the transference of the hegemony from Sparta to Athens to take place without striking a blow (see DELIAN LEAGUE). By the withdrawal of Sparta and her Peloponnesian allies from the fleet the perils and the glories of the Persian War were left to Athens, who, though at the outset merely the leading state in a confederacy of free allies, soon began to make herself the mistress of an empire.

Sparta took no steps at first to prevent this. Her interests and those of Athens did not directly clash, for Athens included in her empire only the islands of the Aegean and the towns on its north and east coasts, which lay outside the Spartan political horizon: with the Peloponnese Athens did not meddle. Moreover, Sparta’s attention was at this time fully occupied by troubles nearer home—the plots of Pausanias not only with the Persian king but with the Laconian helots; the revolt of Tegea ‘(c. 473—71), rendered all ‘the more formidable by the participation of Argos; the earthquake which in 464 devastated SDarta; and the rising of the Messenian helots, which immediately followed. But there was a growing estrangement from Athens, which ended at length in an open breach. The insulting dismissal of a large body of Athenian troops which had come, under Cimon, to aid the Spartans in the siege of the Messenian stronghold of Ithome, the consummation of the Attic democracy under Ephialtes and Pericles, the conclusion of an alliance between Atheu3 and Argos, which also about this time became democratic, united with other causes to bring about a rupture between the Athenians and the Peloponnesian League.

In this so-called first Peloponnesian War Sparta herself took but a small share beyond helping to inflict a defeat on the Athenians at Tanagra in 457 B.c. After this battle they concluded a truce, which gave the Athenians an opportunity of taking their revenge on the Boeotians at the battle of Oenophyta, of annexing to their empire Boeotia, Phocis and Locris, and of subjugating Aegina. In 449 the war was ended by a five years’ truce, but after Athens had lost her mainland empire by the battle of Coronea and the revolt of Megara a thirty years’ peace was concluded, probably in the winter 446—445 B.C. By this Athens was obliged to surrender Troezen, Achaea and the two Megarian ports, Nisaea and Pegae, but otherwise the status quo was maintained.

A fresh struggle, the great Peloponnesian War

A fresh struggle, the great Peloponnesian War (q.v.), broke out in 431 B.c. This may be to a certain extent regarded as a contest between lonian nd Dorian; it may with greater truth be called a struggle between. the democratic and oligarchic principles of government; but at bottom its cause was neither racial nor constitutional, but economic.

The maritime supremacy of Athens was used for commercial purposes, and important members of the Peloponnesian confederacy, whose wealth depended largely on their commerce, notably Corinth, Megara, Sicyon and Epidaurus, were being slowly but relentlessly crushed. Materially Sparta must have remained almost unaffected, but she was forced to take action by the pressure of her allies and by the necessities imposed by her position as head of the league. She did not, however, prosecute the war with any marked vigour: her operations were almost confined to an annual inroad into Attica, and when in 425 a body of Spartiates was captured by the Athenians at Pylos she was ready, and even anxious, to terminate the war on any reasonable conditions. That the terms of the Peace of Nicias, which in 421 concluded the first phase of the war, were rather in favour of Sparta than of Athens was due almost entirely to the energy and insight of an individual Spartan, Brasidas (qv.), and the disastrous attempt of Athens to regain its lost land-empire. The final success of Sparta and the capture of Athens in 405 were brought about partly by the treachery of Alcibiades, who induced the state to send Gylippus to conduct the defence of Syracuse, to fortify Decelea in northern Attica, and to adopt a vigorous policy of aiding Athenian allies to revolt. The lack of funds which would have proved fatal to Spartan naval warfare was remedied by the intervention of Persia, which supplied large subsidies, and Spartan good fortune culminated in the possession at this time of an admiral of boundless vigour and considerable military ability, Lysander, to whom much of Sparta’s success is attributable.

The 4th Century

The fall of Athens left Sparta once again supreme in the Greek world and demonstrated clearly its total unfitness for rule. Everywhere democracy was replaced by a philo-Laconian oligarchy, usually consisting of ten men under a harmost or governor pledged to Spartan interests, and even in Laconia itself the narrow and selfish character of the Spartan rule led to a serious conspiracy. For a short time, indeed, under the energetic rule of Agesilaus, it seemed as if Sparta would pursue a Hellenic policy and carry on the war against Persia. But troubles soon broke out in Greece, Agesilaus was recalled from Asia Minor, and his schemes and successes were rendered fruitless.

Further, the naval activity displayed by Sparta during the closing years of the Peloponnesian War abated when Persian subsidies were withdrawn, and the ambitious projects of Lysander led to his disgrace, which was followed by his death at Haliartus in 395. In the following year the Spartan navy under Peisander, Agesilaus’ brother-in-law, was defeated off Cnidus by the Persian fleet under Conon and Pharnabazus, and for the future Sparta ceased to be a maritime power.

In Greece itself meanwhile the opposition to Sparta was growing increasingly powerful, and, though at Coronea Agesilaus had slightly the better of the Boeotians and at Corinth the Spartans maintained their position, yet they felt it necessary to rid themselves of Persian hostility and if possible use the Persian power to strengthen their own position at home: they therefore concluded with Artaxerxes II. the humiliating Peace of Antalcidas (387 B.c.), by which they surrendered to the Great King the Greek cities of the ~sia Minor coast and of Cyprus, and stipulated for the independence of all other Greek cities. This last clause led to a long and desultory war with Thebes, which refused to acknowledge the independence of the Boeotian towns tinder its hegemony: the Cadmeia, the citadel of Thebes, was treacherously seized by Phoebidas in 382 and held by the Spartans until 379.

Still more momentous was the Spartan action in crushing the Olynthiac Confederation (see OLYNTHUS), which might have been able to stay the growth of Macedonian power. In 371 a fresh peace congress was summoned at Sparta to ratify the Peace of Callias. Again the Thebans refused to renounce their Boeotian hegemony, and the Spartan attempt at coercion ended in the defeat of the Spartan army at the battle of Leuctra and the death of its leader, King Cleombrotus. The result of the battle was to transfer the Greek supremacy from Sparta to Thebes.

In the course of three expeditions to the Peloponnese conducted by Epaminondas, the greatest soldier and statesman Thebes ever produced, Sparta was weakened by the loss of Messenia, which was restored to an independent position with the newly built Messene as its capital, and by the foundation of Megalopolis as the capital of Arcadia. The invading army even made its way into Laconia and devastated the whole of its southern portion; but the courage and coolness of Agesilaus saved Sparta itself from attack. On Epaminondas’ fourth expedition Sparta was again within an ace of capture, but once more the danger was averted just in time; and though at Mantinea (362 B.c.) the Thebans, together with the Arcadians, Messenians and Argives, gained a victory over the combined Mantinean, Athenian and Spartan forces, yet the death of Epaminondas in the battle more than counterbalanced the Theban victory and led to the speedy break-up of their supremacy.

But Sparta had neither the men nor the money to recover her lost position, and the continued existence on her borders of an independent Messenia and Arcadia kept her in constant fear for her own safety. She did, indeed, join with Athens and Achaea in 353 to prevent Philip of Macedon passing Thermopylae and entering Phocis, but beyond this she took no part in the struggle of Greece with the new power which had sprung up on her northern borders. No Spartiate fought on the field of Chaeronea.

After the battle, however, she refused to submit voluntarily to Philip, and was forced to do so by the devastation of Laconia and the transference of certain border districts to the neighboring states of Argos, Arcadia and Messenia. During the absence of Alexander the Great in the East Agis III. revolted, but the rising was crushed by Antipater, and a similar attempt to throw off the Macedonian yoke made by Archidamus IV. in the troublous period which succeeded Alexander’s death was frustrated by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 294 BC.

Twenty-two years later the city was attacked by an immense force under Pyrrhus, but Spartan bravery had not died out and the formidable enemy was repulsed, even the women taking part in the defence of the city. About 244 an Aetolian army overran Laconia, working irreparable harm and carrying off, it is said, 50,000 captives.

But the social evils within the state were even harder to combat than foes without. Avarice, luxury and the glaring inequality in the distribution of wealth, threatened to bring about the speedy fall of the state if no cure could be found. Agis IV. and Cleomenes III. (qqv.) made an heroic and entirely disinterested attempt in the latter part of the 3rd century to improve the conditions by a redistribution of land, a widening of the citizen body, and a restoration of the old severe training and simple life. But the evil was too deep-seated to be remedied by these artificial means; Agis was assassinated, and the reforms of Cleomenes seem to have had no permanent effect.

The reign of Cleomenes is marked also by a determined effort to cope with the rising power of the Achaean League (q.n.) and to recover for Sparta her long-lost supremacy in the Peloponnese, and even throughout Greece. The battle of Sellasia (222 BC.), in which Cleomenes was defeated by the Achaeans and Antigonus Doson of Macedonia, and the death of the king, which occurred shortly afterwards in Egypt, put an end to these hopes. The same reign saw also an important constitutional change, the substitution of a board of patronomi for the ephors, whose power had become almost despotic, and the curtailment of the functions exercised by the gerousia; these measures were, however, cancelled by Antigonus. It was not long afterwards hat the dual kingship ceased and Sparta fell under the sway of a series of cruel and rapacious tyrants—Lycurgus, Machanidas, who was killed by Philopoemen, and Nabis, who, if we may trust the accounts given by Polybius and Livy, was little better than a bandit chieftain, holding Sparta by means of extreme cruelty and oppression, and using mercenary troops to a large extent in his wars.

Medieval Sparta

In A.D. 306 Alaric destroyed the city an at a later period Laconia was invaded and settled by Slavoni tribes, especially the Melings and Ezerits, who in turn had to give way before the advance of the Byzantine power, ‘though preserving a partial independence in the mountainous regions. The Franks on their arrival in the Morea found a fortified city named Lacedaemonia occupying part of the site of ancient Sparta, and this continued to exist, though greatly depopulated, even after Guillaume de Villehardouin had in 1248—1249 founded the fortress and city of Misithra, or Mistra, on a spur of Taygetus some 3 m. north-west of Sparta.

This passed shortly afterwards into the hands of the Byzantines, who retained it until the Turks under Mahommed II. captured it in 146o. In 1687 it came into the possession of the Venetians, from whom it was wrested in 1715 by the Turks. Thus for nearly six centuries it was Mistra and not Sparta which formed the centre and focus of Laconian history.

The Modern City

In 1834, after the War of Independence had resulted in the liberation of Greece, the modern town of Sparta was built on part of the ancient site from the designs of Baron Jochmus, and Mistra decayed until now it is in ruins and almost deserted. Sparta is the capital of the prefecture (vouóc) of Lacedaemon and has a population, according to the census taken in 1907, of 4456: but with the exception of several silk factories there is but little industry, and the development of the city is hampered by the unhealthiness of its situation, its distance from the sea and the absence of railway communication with the rest of Greece. As a result of popular clamor, however, a survey for a railway was begun in 1907, an event of great importance for the prosperity of Sparta and of the whole Eurotas Plain.

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Bekasina

The fall of Athens left Sparta once again supreme in the Greek world. Though the details of how Sparta ruled Athens former subjects is uncertain, it was certainly as dictatorial and exploitative as had been the rule of Athens and probably more so. In general Spartan hegemony was exercised selfishly with little regard for the sensibilities either of her allies or her new subjects.^[1] The disquiet of her allies can be seen in the defiance of Boeotia, Elis and Corinth in offering refuge to those who opposed to the rule of the thirty in Athens.^[2] When these exiles succesfuly defeated the thirty, Sparta's first response was to send Lysander with a band of mercenaries who clearly intended simply to place the thirty back in power. Very quickly, however, Sparta send Pausanias with a levy of the Peloponesian League who on the one hand accepted the restoration of democracy but on the other hand split Eleusis, whence the oligachs had fled, off from the Athenian Polis.

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Quick facts Guildford, District ...

Guildford
Guildford Location within Surrey
District	Guildford
Shire county	Surrey
Region	South East
Country	England
Sovereign state	United Kingdom
Postcode district	GU
Police	Surrey
Fire	Surrey
Ambulance	South East Coast
List of places UK England Surrey 51.2354°N 0.5746°W / 51.2354; -0.5746

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Quick facts Miloš Trifunović, Secretary General of the Regional Cooperation Council ...

Miloš Trifunović
Secretary General of the Regional Cooperation Council
In office 1 January 2013 – 31 December 2018
Preceded by	Hidajet Biščević
Succeeded by	Majlinda Bregu
Minister of Foreign Affairs of Serbia and Montenegro
In office 4 November 2000 – 16 April 2004
Preceded by	Živadin Jovanović
Succeeded by	Vuk Drašković
Personal details
Born	Goran Svilanović (1963-10-22) 22 October 1963 (age 62) Gnjilane, Kosovo and Metohija, SR Serbia, SFR Yugoslavia
Alma mater	University of Belgrade

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Милош Трифуновић (Ужице, 30. октобар 1871 — Београд, 19. фебруар 1957) био је српски и југословенски политичар. Miloš Trifunović (Serbian Cyrillic: Милош Трифуновић; 30 October 1871 – 19 February 1957) was a Serbian and Yugoslav politician.

Early life

While at York, she studied paraphilias, which are abnormal sexual preferences. Her research indicates that these are neurological conditions rather than learned behaviours.^[3] Soh has emphasized that paraphilia is broad enough to encompass consensual activities; she reserves the term paraphilic disorder for the types that predispose one to harm others^[4] such as paedophilia.^[5]

References

External links

1. Category:People's Radical Party politicians]]

Category:Yugoslav National Party politicians]]

Category:Mayors of Niš]]

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Nicaea#Ottoman_Empire .... Nikola Bagaš _____Studenica Monastery

Treaty of Chernomen .. ... .. Thomais Orsini ... Thomas II Preljubović as the new overlord of Ioannina.

Keşan ... ______ Lüleburgaz. _____ pathfinding Muhammad al-Idrisi Ottoman pretender Savcı Bey

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{{Infobox scientist |name = Antoine Joseph Gorsas |image = Antoine-Joseph Gorsas par Bonneville.jpg |image_size = |caption = |birth_name= |birth_date = (1742-03-09)9 March 1742 |birth_place = Limoges (France) |death_date = 7 October 1793(1793-10-07) (aged 41) |death_place = Paris (France) (guillotined) |residence = |citizenship = |nationality = French |ethnicity = |fields = Publicist |workplaces = |alma_mater = |doctoral_advisor = |academic_advisor = |doctoral_students = |notable_students = |known_for = Newspapers

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Quick facts Jean-Louis Carra, Born ...

Jean-Louis Carra
Born	(1742-03-09)9 March 1742 Pont-de-Veyle (France)
Died	31 October 1793(1793-10-31) (aged 51) Paris, French First Republic
Cause of death	Execution by guillotine
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Biography

He was the son of a Commissioner of seigniorial rights. When he was still at college in Mâcon, he was imprisoned accused of stealing ribbons. In 1768-1769, he was secretary to the Marc Antoine René de Voyer. There followed a period of wandering in Switzerland and in England, where he was imprisoned for debt, in Russia and in the Moldavia of Prince Grigore Ghica. After collaborating on the Encyclopedia of Yverdon, he joined the team writing the Supplément à l'Encyclopédie in July 1771, for which he wrote 400 articles on Geography, and which he left in June 1772 after a quarrel with the editorial director Robinet. He brought the matter into the public domain by publishing a violent pamphlet against Robine^[1]. In 1776, after a stay in Warsaw, he returned to France. In 1784, thanks to the protection of Baron de Breteuil, he entered the Histoire de la Bibliothèque nationale de France^[2].

During the Revolution, he was noticed early on by his contributions to the Annales patriotiques et littéraires.. Active in the Jacobin Club and the Society of the Friends of the Blacks, he was appointed, jointly with Chamfort, to head the Bibliothèque nationale on 19.

The Annales patriotiques were a prodigious success; they were in all the clubs. In the villages every popular society had its Carra partisan^[3]. Everything that was said in these turbulent associations was collected by this paper, which spread all this from one end of France to the other.

As early as 29 December 1790, Carra appeared at the tribune of the Jacobin club, formally declared war on the Emperor Leopold, and added that, to raise all the peoples of Germany, he only asked for 50,000 men, 12 presses, printers and paper, but then, even in this club, no one thought about war, and Mirabeau had him covered in boos.

On 8 September 1792, he presented himself at the bar of the legislative body, and had a gold snuffbox placed on the desk, which he said had been given to him by the King of Prussia, in recognition of a work he had dedicated to him, and asked that this gold be used to fight the sovereign who had given it to him: he ended by tearing up the signature of the letter that the king had addressed to him. However, several people claimed that, despite all these protestations of a republicanism that knew neither deference nor indulgence, Carra was the agent of a party that wanted to place the Duke of Brunswick on the throne of France. This suspicion found fertile ground with Robespierre, who branded him a traitor, notwithstanding the fact that Carra had consistently been one of his most effective collaborators. Carra was one of the main promoters of the attack on the Tuileries, August 10, and boasted about it in his paper.

Carra was elected deputy to the National Convention by the departments of Eure and Saône-et-Loire: he accepted the nomination of the latter while he was replaced in the former by Louis-Jacques Savary. In the trial of Louis XVI, he was one of the first to speak out against the appeal to the people. Moreover, he did not attract attention in this assembly, and reserved all his resources for his newspaper.

It was in this paper that, from the first months of 1792, he insisted that the populace be armed with pikes in order to oppose it to the national guard, composed solely of the bourgeois of each city, and he repeated this so often that his wishes were finally satisfied. This measure disorganized the public force that supported the weak constitution. The National Guard, especially in Paris, was very well-dressed and took pride in never appearing except in the most brilliant military costume. As soon as the pikes appeared, most of the companies did not want to be confused with the mob of pikemen, who were then called "sans-culottes", and stopped serving.

Rejected by Robespierre's party, Carra sided with the Brissotins, and was appointed, under the ministry of Roland, guard of the National Library. Soon the denunciations against him multiplied. Marat, Couthon and Robespierre had him recalled from a mission to Blois, on 12 June 1793. Banished following the events of May 31, 1793, he was sentenced to death on October 30, 1793 by the revolutionary tribunal of Paris The next day he was beheaded as part of the group of 22 Girondin deputies executed that day.

He accused General Montesquiou, commander in Savoy, and was sent to the Châlons camp, from where he announced the retreat of the Prussians.