User talk:1007D

Lead section

Tiger shark Temporal range: 50–0 Ma[1] PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Early Eocene to Present
Conservation status
Near Threatened (IUCN 2.3)[2]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Chondrichthyes
Subclass:	Elasmobranchii
Order:	Carcharhiniformes
Family:	Carcharhinidae
Genus:	Galeocerdo J. P. Müller & Henle, 1837
Species:	G. cuvier
Binomial name
Galeocerdo cuvier Péron & Lesueur, 1822
Tiger shark range
Synonyms
Squalus cuvier Peron and Lessueur, 1822 Galeocerdo tigrinus Müller and Henle, 1837

The tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvier, is a species of requiem shark and the only member of the genus Galeocerdo. Commonly known as sea tigers, tiger sharks are relatively large macropredators, capable of attaining a length of over 5 m (16 ft).^[3] This shark typically reaches maturity at lengths of 2 to 3 m (6.6 to 9.8 ft).^[4][5] It is found in many tropical and temperate oceans, and is especially common around central Pacific islands. Its name derives from the dark stripes down its body, which resemble a tiger's pattern and fade as the shark matures.^[6]

The tiger shark is a solitary, mostly night-time hunter. Its diet involves a wide range of prey, including crustaceans, fish, seals, birds, smaller sharks, squid, turtles, sea snakes, and dolphins. Tiger sharks are considered a near threatened species due to excessive finning and fishing by humans.^[2]

While the tiger shark is considered to be one of the sharks most dangerous to humans, the attack rate is surprisingly low according to researchers.^[7] The tiger is second on the list of number of recorded attacks on humans, with the great white shark being first.^[8][9][10] They often visit shallow reefs, harbours and canals, creating the potential for encounter with humans.^[6]

Taxonomy

The shark was first described by Peron and Lessueur in 1822, and was given the name Squalus cuvier.^[11] Müller and Henle, in 1837 renamed it Galeocerdo tigrinus.^[4] The genus, Galeocerdo, is derived from the Greek, galeos which means shark and the Latin cerdus which means the hard hairs of pigs.^[4] It is often colloquially called the man-eater shark.^[4]

The tiger shark is a member of the order Carcharhiniformes;^[11] members of this order are characterized by the presence of a nictitating membrane over the eyes, two dorsal fins, an anal fin, and five gill slits. It is the largest member of the Carcharhinidae family, commonly referred to as requiem sharks. This family includes some other well-known sharks, such as the blue shark, lemon shark and bull shark.^[6]

Range and habitat

The tiger shark is often found close to the coast, in mainly tropical and sub-tropical waters worldwide,^[8] Along with the Great White shark, Pacific sleeper shark, Greenland shark and sixgill shark, tiger sharks are among the largest extant sharks.^[4] The shark's behavior is primarily nomadic, but is guided by warmer currents, and it stays closer to the equator throughout the colder months. The shark tends to stay in deep waters that line reefs but does move into channels to pursue prey in shallower waters. In the western Pacific Ocean, the shark has been found as far north as Japan and as far south as New Zealand.^[12]

Tiger sharks have been recorded at depths just shy of 900 metres (3,000 ft)^[4] but is also known to move into shallow water - water that is normally thought to be too shallow for a species of its size.^[6] They often visit shallow reefs, harbours and canals, creating the potential for encounter with humans.

Anatomy and appearance

Diet

The tiger shark is an apex predator,^[16] and has a reputation for eating anything.^[4] It also possesses the capability to take on large prey It commonly preys upon: fish (teleosts), crustaceans, mollusks, dugongs, seabirds, seasnakes,^[17] marine mammals (e.g. bottlenose dolphins,^[18] spotted dolphins^[19]), and sea turtles (e.g. green and loggerhead turtles^[20]). The broad, heavily calcified jaws and nearly terminal mouth, combined with robust, serrated teeth, enable the tiger shark to take on these large prey.^[21] In addition, excellent eyesight and acute sense of smell enable it to react to faint traces of blood and follow them to the source. Due to high risk of predatory attacks, dolphins often avoid regions inhabited by tiger sharks.^[21] Tiger sharks also eat other sharks (such as sandbar sharks) including other tiger sharks.^[6]

Tiger sharks also attack injured or ailing whales and prey upon them. A group was documented attacking and killing an ailing humpback whale, in 2006, near Hawaii.^[22] Tiger sharks also scavenge on dead whales. In one such documented incident, they were observed scavenging on a whale carcass alongside great white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias.^[23]

The ability to pick up low-frequency pressure waves enables the shark to advance towards an animal with confidence, even in murky water.^[15] The shark circles its prey and studies it by prodding it with its snout.^[15] When attacking, the shark often eats its prey whole.^[15] Because of its aggressive feeding, it often mistakenly eats inedible objects, such as automobile license plates, oil cans, tires, and baseballs. For this reason, the tiger shark is often regarded as the ocean's "garbage can".^[6]

Reproduction

Males reach sexual maturity at 2.3 to 2.9 m (7.5 to 9.5 ft) and females at 2.5 to 3.5 m (8.2 to 11.5 ft).^[5] Females mate once every 3 years.^[6] They breed by internal fertilization: the male inserts one of his claspers into the female's genital opening (cloaca), acting as a guide for the sperm. The male uses its teeth to hold the female still during the procedure, often causing the female considerable discomfort. Mating in the northern hemisphere generally takes place between March and May, with birth between April and June the following year. In the southern hemisphere, mating takes place in November, December, or early January. The tiger shark is the only species in its family that is ovoviviparous; its eggs hatch internally and the young are born live when fully developed.^[4]

The young develop inside the mother's body for up to 16 months. Litters range from 10 to 80 pups.^[4] A newborn is generally 51 centimetres (20 in) to 76 centimetres (30 in) long.^[4] It is unknown how long tiger sharks live, but they can live longer than 12 years.^[6]

Dangers and conservation

Although shark attacks are a relatively rare phenomenon, the tiger is responsible for a large percentage of fatal attacks, and is regarded as one of the most dangerous shark species.^[9][24] Tiger sharks are often found in river estuaries and harbours, as well as shallow water close to shore, where they are bound to encounter humans. Tiger sharks also dwell in river mouths and other runoff-rich water.^[4][5] 3 to 4 shark attacks occur per year on average in Hawaii and most attacks are non-fatal. This attack rate is surprisingly low considering that thousands of people swim, surf and dive in Hawaiian waters every day.^[7] A notable tiger shark attack made headlines on October 2003, when (then 13-year-old) American surfer Bethany Hamilton lost her arm near her shoulder. Despite the attack, she returned to surfing a short time later.^[25] Hamilton is now a professional surfer and inspirational speaker. A large tiger shark was killed and hung, and later measured to be presumably matching the size and bite pattern of the shark which attacked Hamilton.

Between 1959 and 1976, 4,668 tiger sharks were culled in an effort to protect the tourism industry. Despite these efforts attacks did not decrease. It is illegal to feed sharks in Hawaii, and interaction with them, such as cage diving, is discouraged.^[26] South African shark scientist Mark Addison demonstrated that they could be tamed somewhat in a 2007 Discovery Channel special.^[27]

The tiger shark is captured and killed for its fins, flesh, and liver. It is caught regularly in target and non-target fisheries. There is evidence of declines for several populations where they have been heavily fished, but in general they do not face a high risk of extinction. However, continued demand, especially for fins, may result in further declines in the future. Tiger sharks are considered a near threatened species due to excessive finning and fishing by humans according to International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).^[28]

While shark fin has very few nutrients, shark liver has a high concentration of vitamin A which is used in the production of vitamin oils. In addition, the tiger shark is captured and killed for its distinct skin, as well as by big game fishers.^[4]

In 2010, Greenpeace International added the tiger shark to its seafood red list. "The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."^[29]

Mythology

Tiger sharks are considered to be sacred nā ʻaumākua (ancestor spirits) by some native Hawaiians, who think their eyeballs have special seeing powers. This aligns with the general known facts about sharks and their highly developed senseģs.^[30]

References

Lead section

The Downward Spiral is the second studio album by American industrial rock act Nine Inch Nails, released on March 8, 1994, on Interscope Records and Nothing Records. It is a concept album detailing the destruction of an undisclosed man, frÂom the beginning of his "downward spiral" to his climactic attempt at suicide. Due to its lyrical and thematic content, the album was often packaged with a Parental Advisory sticker, the first of many instances for a Nine Inch Nails recording. The Downward Spiral features elements of industrial rock, techno, and heavy metal music, a stark contrast to the primitive electronic dance music style shown throughout Pretty Hate Machine in 1989.

Following the increase of popularity achieved from the marketing campaigns for Pretty Hate Machine, Broken and Fixed, Trent Reznor wrote the album's concept via poems. He moved to 10050 Cielo Drive with co-producer Flood, and started the recording process, in spite of electrical issues. Adrian Belew and Stephen Perkins were invited to participate in the album's production. Production wrapped up in February 1994 when it was mastered by Alan Moulder.

Selling over five million copies worldwide and certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of four million copies in the United States making the album the act's highest selling release there, The Downward Spiral was a major commercial success that established Nine Inch Nails as a reputable force in the 1990s music scene, particularly following the release of the single "Closer" and its provocative music video (directed by Mark Romanek). The live band supported the record with the controversial Self Destruct Tour.

Since its official release date, the album was released to critical acclaim, and has continued to be well-received. While the album has appeared on many "best of" lists, it has been widely regarded by music critics as Nine Inch Nails' best work. Because it received a large amount of positive reactions from critics and fans alike, the album was nominated for the Best Alternative Music Performance at the 37th Grammy Awards on 1 March 1995, while the final track off the album ("Hurt") received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1996, both which did not win any trophies. A companion remix album, Further Down the Spiral, was released in that same year.

Writing and recording

Themes, lyrics and controversy

[[|thumb|Alt=A monkey strapped to a crucifix.|A common theme in The Downward Spiral is Nihilism. Parts of the Mark Romanek-directed music video for "Closer," such as this imagery of a crucified monkey, is a take on the theme.]] There are numerous layers of metaphors that are present throughout the album, which leaves it open to wide interpretation.^[19] The album relays many concepts of Nihilism, such as the chorus line in "Heresy" (one of three meanings of the word is "adherence to a religious opinion contrary to church dogma"),^[20] which exclaims: "Your god is dead/And no one cares. If there is a hell/I'll see you there." As a whole, The Downward Spiral is defined by Nietzschean concepts and a prominent theme of existentialism. It is a concept album in which the overarching plot follows the protagonist's descent into his own inner solipsistic world, through a metaphorical "downward spiral", dealing with relationships ("Piggy"), religion ("Heresy"), society ("March of the Pigs" and "Eraser"), sexuality ("Closer"), drugs ("Ruiner"), dehumanization ("The Becoming"), disease ("I Do Not Want This" and "Reptile"), violence ("Big Man with a Gun"), emotion ("A Warm Place"), and finally suicide ("The Downward Spiral" and "Hurt"). This character can be understood as a representation of Reznor himself. Throughout the accompanying Self Destruct tour, the visibility of controversy increased with religious protests, but before this point occurred, Reznor perceived himself to be "pretty normal. With The Downward Spiral, I can remember where I was in my head, what I was thinking, and I can remember writing that record, and the mindset. This record that was about an extension of me, became the truth fulfilling itself."^[21]

"Mr. Self Destruct" describes the background of the protagonist, including sexuality. This aspect is further explored in "Closer," whose lyrics and music video were criticized by some for representing inapproiate content. The chorus featured themes of copulation, leading to a radio edit with the "I wanna fuck you like an animal" line censored created for airplay. The song did not top any charts, and failed to reach the Top 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, peaking at number 41.^[22]

The meaning of "Hurt" (later covered by country musician Johnny Cash in 2002) is disputed; some listeners say the song acts like a suicide note with notes on depression, while other may find it to describe someone finding a new lease on life.^[23] Officially, the song talks about differences between society and self-harm. The title track, somewhat like "Hurt," has the protagonist committing suicide with a gun aimed at "his face" (the unreleased "Just Do It" deals with a similar fate, while the gun violence-laden "Big Man with a Gun" might be heard sometimes as an alternative ending to the album – the latter with the main character killing a different person instead of himself), followed by changes of the person's environment.

"Piggy" is named after a character who has a dislike on the main character, whereby "Reptile" deals with the protagonist's role as a whore. Both songs are named after animals. "Eraser" is the only song to have its title conceived from the name of a invention (in this case, the school-used object with the same name).

"The Becoming" has the protagonist retreating from his human, emotional side, and the power and the pain inherent in doing so. Its lyrics include references to near-death and death experiences, and also use the name "Annie". When given about the use of "Annie", Reznor said in retrospect that this person "was abstractly referring to a college sweetheart/heartbreak situation that, at the time I was writing that song, was a valid source of emotional pain to draw from. Her real name is Andrea Mulrain, and her phone number is... [the phone number used was not printed in Reznor's answer to the use of the name]."^[24] Even "Ruiner" blusters with disease themes, though the lyrics contain drug references, with the eponymous character's personality consisting of "ruin[ing] everything" so much that he could spread a virus.

Some of the album's songs conclude by repeating the same line or set of lines. These deviate from the traditional chorus-chorus ending in that these lyrics are introduced near the end, and they are not sung, but rather whispered or yelled. The most evident of these is the phrase "nothing can stop me now", which appears in "Piggy", "Ruiner", and "Big Man with a Gun". The same words would recur on later albums in "La Mer", "We're in This Together", and "Sunspots".

The record was nearing completion. I had written those lyrics pretty quickly and I didn't know if I was going to use them or not. To me, Downward Spiral builds to a certain degree of madness, then it changes. That would be the last stage of delirium. So the original point of 'Big Man with a Gun' was madness. But it was also making fun of the whole misogynistic gangsta-rap bullshit. [...] I listen to a lot of it, and I enjoy it. But I could do without the degree of misogyny and hatred of women and abuse. Then, my song got misinterpreted as exactly that. It was probably a lack of being able to write. I've been taken out of context, and it's ridiculous. [...] She's a fucking idiot. But I think The Downward Spiral actually could be harmful, through implying and subliminally suggesting a lot of things, whereas a lot of the hardcore rap becomes cartoonish—it's real to youngsters, but it's so over the top. From an artistic point of view, if I'd had a couple more months to look back on everything, I probably would not have put that song on the record. Just 'cause I don't think it's that good a song, not because I got spanked for it.^[25]

Samples

The opening sounds of "Mr. Self Destruct" are a portion from the George Lucas-directed THX 1138 (1971) in which a man is being beaten by a prison guard while flanked inside a jail.^[26] The drum track for "Closer" features a heavily modified bass drum sample from the Iggy Pop song "Nightclubbing" from his album The Idiot (1977). The sounds heard in the middle section of "Ruiner" contains a sample from David Lynch's film The Elephant Man (1980). The loop of screaming voices heard at the beginning of "The Becoming" is again a sample from the cult film Robot Jox (1991), which globally grossed less than US$2,000,000.^[27] The voice at the beginning of "Big Man with a Gun" comes from a studio-altered recording of a porn star having an orgasm. According to the album liner notes, this sample is titled "Steakhouse" and is credited to Tommy Lee.^[28] However, in the 5.1 surround edition of the 2004 re-release of The Downward Spiral, the sample heard at the point is replaced with a lower-pitched, distant wail, which echoes around the speakers.

The mechanical clanks at the beginning of "Reptile" can be heard in Leviathan (1989), and the looping female voice at the end of the second chorus was originally used in a horror fiction film titled The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1975). The watery noise at the beginning of "The Downward Spiral" is sampled from Ridley Scott's science fiction-horror movie Alien (1979). Japanese pressings contain a bonus track, the Joy Division cover "Dead Souls", originally released on The Crow original soundtrack.^[29][30]

Release

Accolades

The Downward Spiral received 1995 Grammy Award nominations, for Best Hard Rock Performance and Best Alternative Music Album.^[34][35] Nine Inch Nails was subsequently nominated for two 1996 Grammy Awards, including Best Rock Performance for the song "Hurt" and for the inclusion of the Broken EP's debut single "Happiness in Slavery" at the act's Woodstock '94 gig under Best Metal Performance, with the latter award delivered to the aforementioned track that won the honor. However, "Hurt" and The Downward Spiral did not win any nominations.^[36]

References