Sorbs (tribe)

Origin

According to the old theorization by Joachim Herrmann, the Serbian tribe characterized by Rüssen-type of Leipzig group pottery arrived from the Middle Danube in the beginning of the 7th century and settled between Saale and Elbe river, but only since the 10th century their ethnonym was transferred to the Luzici, Milceni and other tribes of Sukow-Dziedzice and Tornow group who supposedly were present from the late 5th and early 6th century (Tornow since the 7th century, as was also argued that to the West were present some Slavs with Prague-Korchak culture).^[6][7][8] Herrmann also considered that the Sorbs settled and influenced around Magdeburg, Havelland, Thuringia and northeast Bavaria,^[9] and alongside them immigrated Croats and Bulgars from Middle Danube escaping the pressure of Pannonian Avars.^[10][11] However, since the 1980s, Herrmann's theory about waves of several archaeological cultures carried by distinctive ethnic groups is outdated and rejected by archaeologists, historians and other scholars because it was found to be completely unfounded and based on wrong data and chronologies among others.^{[12][13][14][15][16]} Pottery of similar quality to the Rüssen-type in the rest of Polabia appears only since the second half of the 8th century.^[17] Dendrochronology also showed that the wooden building material was from the late 8th to the beginning of the 10th century, while the material from the 6th and 7th century is almost non-existent.^[18] This is also doubting the accuracy of the historical sources and their interpretation.^[18] Peter Heather, in conclusion, stated that it is an "old theory" with seriously erroneous dating of the ceramics and sites, which in reality date to the 8th and 9th century.^[19] The archaeological data and historical sources indicate earliest Slavic migration along the Carpathians and the Alps since the late 6th century with Korchak-type material,^[20][21] and "the Serbs, most likely, were already carriers of ceramics of the Prague-Korchak type".^[22][23] Heinz Schuster-Šewc deemd as "unfounded" the idea that the Luzici and Milceni did not ethnically belong to the same group as the Sorbs living west of the Elbe river and adopted the Sorbian ethonym since the 10-11th century.^[15]

According to some researchers the archaeological data cannot confirm the thesis about a single proto-linguistic group yet supports the claim about two separated ethno-cultural groups with different ancestries whose respective territories correspond to Tornow-type ceramics (Lower Sorbian language) and Leipzig-type ceramics (Upper Sorbian language).^[6][24] Upper Sorbian is more similar to Czech, Slovak and Ukrainian, while Lower Sorbian to Lechitic dialects,^[24] with Schuster-Šewc arguing a migration from northeastern Bohemia to Lusatia.^[25][26] However, linguistic research does see a connection between Sorbian languages (specifically Upper Sorbian language^[27]) and South Slavic languages,^[28] particularly the Late Common Slavic *-nū->-nq- // -ny->-ni- verb suffix which is also present in Polabian language dialect, Cieszyn Silesian dialect, and Western South Slavic languages (most of Slovenian dialects and Western part of Serbo-Croatian dialects including Kajkavian, Čakavian, Western Štokavian) which could indicate a northward migration from the south or pointing to a single common area of Slavic pre-migratory period.^{[29][30][31][32]} However, it could be also an in situ development and analogies unrelated to historical migrations.^[33] Aleksandar Loma considered that the supposed South Slavic linguistic connection actually "implies that before the 7th century the ancestors of Sorbs came from the east of the Slavic territory to their later homeland, where they subsequently mingled with the West-Slavs. Thus, if the southern Serbs stem from the west and the western from the east, we have a good reason to assume existence of a former East-Slavic tribe under the same name", and that "any further refutation of their ethnogenetic connection by the diversity of their [Sorbian and Serbian] dialects becomes pointless".^[34]

It is considered that the ancient homeland of the Sorbs probably was near other Slavs somewhere in Southeastern Poland and Western Ukraine, from where migrated westward along the Carpathians to Silesia, Bohemia and eventually Saxony.^[35] The appearance of the Slavs in Polabia is usually interpreted as a migration with or without Avar influence (either independent arrival with or without Avar pressure, or under decision by the Avars as anti-Frankish border guards, or under patronage of the Franks as anti-Avar border guards in Thuringia).^[36] However, as the Sorbs probably were present around Bohemia already by the mid-6th century, it excludes their relation with first two Frankish-Avar conflicts (562, 566), and Avars in general, and supports the initiative of the Franks.^[37]

The original settlement area of the tribe of Sorbs was between Saale and Elbe river valleys and the Ore Mountains, possibly also expanding to the Lower Havel river in the north, and from the Ilm and Saale in the southwest in Thuringia to the Gera river and city of Erfurt.^[38] Based on historical and archaeological evidence, they most probably arrived there from North(-western) Bohemia being part of same ethnocultural area alongside Bohemian tribes of Pšované, Litoměřici, Lemuzi and Děčané.^[39] According to a fringe theory their area of settlement possibly also included part of Chebsko (the northwestern edge of the Czech Republic),^[40][41] but it is a baseless claim without a source, and scholars, including E. Simek proved only Czechs lived there.^[41] Henryk Łowmiański concluded that there's no mention of Sorbs/Serbs living in the territory of Bohemia in Czech and German historical sources.^[41] The area of White Serbs in the Saale-Elbe valley had flat-graves with cremations in urns, while the area of Upper Lusatia and partly Lower Lusatia also had kurgan cremation burials, which was more common in neighboring area of Northeastern Bohemia and Lower Silesia (inhabited by White Croats and Polish tribes), assumed by Rostyslav Vatseba as an indication of a Lechitic-Croatian contact zone in the eastern part of Saxony.^[26][42][43]

It is often considered that the earliest mention of the Sorbs is from the 6th century or earlier by Vibius Sequester,^[44] who recorded Cervetiis (Servetiis) living on the other part of the river Elbe which divided them from the Suevi (Albis Germaniae Suevos a Cerveciis dividiit).^{[2][45][46][40][47][48][49][50]} According to one theory, the original Serbs were not of Slavic origin and such an early mention is related to possible westward migration of a Sarmatian tribe of Serboi with the Huns who later as an elite subjugated Slavic population giving it their name,^{[51][52][53][54]} and that those who remained in the Caucasus region, were mentioned by Constantine VII in De Ceremoniis as Sarban (Serbs) and Krevatades (Croats).^[55][56] According to Lubor Niederle, that Serbian district in Polabia was located somewhere between Magdeburg and Lusatia, and was later mentioned by the Ottonians as Ciervisti, Zerbisti, and Kirvisti.^[57]

7th century

According to the Chronicle of Fredegar, the Surbi lived in the Saale-Elbe valley, having settled in the Thuringian part of Francia at least since the second-half of the 6th century and were vassals of Merovingian dynasty.^[40][58][59] The Saale-Elbe line marked the approximate limit of Slavic westward migration.^[60] It is described that they since long time ago were "attached" or "belonged" to the Frankish kingdom, which would be possible at the latest in the interval of Theudebert II's of Austrasia (595–612), probably helping the Franks in the conquest of Thuringia and later siding with Theudebert II during princely rebellion of Theuderic II.^[61]

Fredegar recounts that under the leadership of dux (duke) Dervan (Dervanus dux gente Surbiorum que ex genere Sclavinorum), they joined the Slavic tribal union of Samo, after Samo's decisive victory against Frankish King Dagobert I in 631.^[58][59] Afterwards, these Slavic tribes continuously raided Thuringia.^[58] The fate of the tribes during and Samo's death and dissolution of the union in 658 is undetermined, but it is considered that subsequently returned to Frankish vassalage,^[62] under semi-independent Radulf, King of Thuringia (632–642) until around 700 AD.^[63]

8th century

In 782, the Sorbs, inhabiting the region between the Elbe and Saale, plundered Thuringia and Saxony.^[64] Charlemagne sent Adalgis, Worad and Geilo into Saxony, aimed at attacking the Sorbs, however, they met with rebel Saxons who destroyed them.^[65]

In 789, Charlemagne launched a campaign against the Wiltzi; after reaching the Elbe, he went further and successfully "subjected the Slavs".^[66][67] His army also included the Sorbs and Obotrites led by chieftain Witzan.^[66][67] The army reached Dragovit of the Wiltzi, who surrendered, followed by other Slavic magnates and chieftains who submitted to Charlemagne.^[67]

9th century

Charles the Younger launched a campaign against the Slavs in Bohemia in 805, killing their dux, Lecho, and then proceeded crossing the Saale with his army and killed rex (king) Melito (or "Miliduoch") of the Sorabi or Siurbis who "live on the River Elbe" in 806.^{[68][69][70][71]} The region was laid to waste, upon which the other Slavic chieftains submitted and gave hostages.^[72][73] Franks constructed two castles, one on each river.^[68] Ten years later, in 816 the Sorbs rebelled, but their disobedience was suppressed after Saxons and East Franks campaign conquering their cities, and renewing their oaths of submission.^[74][71][75] In 822, the Sorbs sent an embassy with gifts alongside other Slavs (Obodrites, Wilzi, Bohemians, Moravians, Praedenecenti as well as Pannonian Avars) to a Louis the Pious's general assembly at Frankfurt.^[76]

In May 826, at a meeting at Ingelheim, Cedrag of the Obotrites and Tunglo "one of the magnates" of the Sorbs were accused of malpractices; they were ordered to appear in October, and Tunglo surrendered his son as hostage to be allowed to return home.^[77][78][79] The Franks had, sometime before the 830s, established the Sorbian March, comprising eastern Thuringia, in easternmost East Francia.

In 839, the Saxons fought "the Sorabos, called Colodici" at Kesigesburch and won the battle, managing to kill their king Cimusclo (or "Czimislav"), with Kesigesburch and eleven forts being captured.^[71] The Sorbs were forced to pay tribute and forfeited territory to the Franks.^[80] The Sorbian tribe of Colodici was furthermore mentioned in 973 (Coledizi pagus, Cholidici), in 975 (Colidiki), and 1015 (Colidici locus).^[81] Besides Colodici other tribes which scholars consider part of the core Sorbian tribes were Glomacze-Daleminzi, Chutici-Chudzicy, Citici-Żytyce, Neletici-Nieletycy, Siusler-Susłowie among others.^[6][82][83]

According to the Annales Fuldenses, in 849 Thachulf, Duke of Thuringia held also the title "dux of the Sorbian March",^[84] In 851, the Sorbs attacked and raided Frankish border, provoking Louis the German's invasion which "oppressed them severely. He tamed them, after they had lost their harvests and so the hope of food".^[85] In August 856 the Sorbian duces joined king Louis's army in his successful attack on Daleminzi and Duchy of Bohemia.^[86][87] In 857, the brother of Sclavitag/Slavitach son of rebellious Wiztrach dux of Bohemians, found a refuge at the court of Zistibor of Sorbs before was made new dux of Bohemians by the Franks.^[88][87] For summer 858, Thachulf was ordered to attack the Sorbs, as one of three armies dealing with different Slavic frontiers.^[89] It is unclear whether by then, or later in the year, Sorbs killed their dux Zistibor.^[90] In 869, Sorbs (as a tribe, not confederation^[91]) and Siusli (another Sorbic tribe^[91]) "joined with the Bohemians and the other peoples of the region and crossed the old Thuringian border: they laid many places waste and killed some who rashly came together to attack them".^[91] In August of the same year, many Sorbs and Bohemian mercenaries recruited by the Sorbs, were killed and forced to return home or surrender by Louis the Younger, Thuringian and Saxon forces.^[92] After death of Thachulf in August 873, the Sorbs and Siusli rebelled again, but Liutbert (archbishop of Mainz) and new Sorbian March dux Radulf II in January 874 "by pillaging and burning crushed their insolence without battle and reduced them to their former servility".^[93] After the Viking raids in the Rhineland against the Saxons in 880, joint forces of the Sorbs, Daleminzi, Bohemians and other near tribes attacked the Slavs around Saale river "faithful to the Thuringians with plunder and burning. Count Poppo, dux of the Sorbian march, came against them with the Thuringians, and with God's help so defeated them that not one out of a great multitude remained".^[94] The Sorbs in Saxony probably were the Slavs who successfully repelled and killed Arn (bishop of Würzburg) in 892.^[95][96]

It is considered that somewhere in the second-half of the 9th century, Svatopluk I of Moravia (r. 871–894) may have incorporated the Sorbs into Great Moravia,^[60][97] or spread Moravian influence in the region,^[87] because Annales Fuldenses mentions an oath of fidelity mission with gifts by Sorbs in Salz and then Bohemians in Regensburg to king Arnulf in 895/897 (with Bohemians calling the Moravians as "enemies" and "oppressors"^[97]),^[97][87][98] while Thietmar of Merseburg in his Chronicon Thietmari speaking about Thuringia wrote that "in the reign of the Duke Svatopluk we were ruled by Bohemian princes. Our ancestors paid him an annual tribute and he had bishops in his country, then called Marierun [Moravia]".^[87]

The mid-9th century Bavarian Geographer mentioned the Surbi having 50 civitates (Iuxta illos est regio, que vocatur Surbi, in qua regione plures sunt, que habent civitates L).^[99][2] Alfred the Great in his Geography of Europe (888–893) relying on Orosius, recorded that "north of the Dalamensians are the Surpe/Servians".^[100][101]

10th century

King Henry the Fowler had subjected the Stodorani in 928, and in the following year imposed overlordship on the Obotrites and Veletians, and strengthened the grip on the Sorbs and Glomacze.^[102]

Between 932 and 963 the Sorbs were gradualy losing their independence, pressured by count Gero, king Otto's margrave of the East (Latin: Gero Orientalium marchio), who expanded German rule into the lands of Polabian Slavs.^[103][104] Since the 940s, several Burgwards were built in the territory of the Sorbs,^[105] and the Margravate of Meissen and March of Lusatia were established ater 965,^[106] within the Holy Roman Empire, with Otto I founding new bishoprics in Slavic regions (including Bishopric of Merseburg^[107]).^[108] Bishop Boso of St. Emmeram (d. 970), a Slavic-speaker, had considerable success in Christianizing the Sorbs.^[109] Although by 994 some Slavic people managed to get independence, only Sorbs remained under Saxon control.^[110]

Newer scholarly analyses of primary sources have shown that copies of some charters that contain data on foundation of dioceses in Slavic regions and Gero's jurisdiction over those territories should be considered as inerpolated or forged, thus leading modern researchers to question or reject various traditional views regarding the nature and effective scope of German expansion towards those Slavic lands in the middle of the 10th century.^[111]

The Arab historians and geographers Al-Masudi and Al-Bakri (10th and 11th century) writing on the Saqaliba mentioned the Sarbin or Sernin living between the Germans and the Moravians, a "Slavic people much feared for reasons that it would take too long to explain and whose deeds would need much too detailed an account. They have no particular religious affiliation". They, like other Slavs, "have the custom of burning themselves alive when a king or chieftain dies. They also immolate his horses".^{[112][113][114][115]} In the Hebrew book Josippon (10th century) are listed four Slavic ethnic names from Venice to Saxony; Mwr.wh (Moravians), Krw.tj (Croats), Swrbjn (Sorbs), Lwcnj (Lučané or Lusatians).^[41]

Aftermath

In the spring of 1002, German marches in Sorbian lands were temporarily overrun by the Polish duke Bolesław I the Brave, who seized all regions up to the river Elbe, capturing the town of Bautzen (Upper Sorbian: Budyšin), and also the neighboring city of Meissen (Upper Sorbian: Mišno) with territories towards the west, up to White Elster river.^[116] Those Sorbian and other Slavic regions remained contested for several years, since German-Polish relations were marked by a series of recurring conflicts and temporary treaties, that consequently resulted in the gradual resoration of German rule over Sorbian lands.^[117]

Cosmas of Prague in his 12th century Chronica Boemorum, speaking about mythical history of Czechs, mentions certain tutor Duringo of Sribia genere and as scelestus Zribin.^[118][119] The chronicle, dealing with real historical events, mentions land of Serbia (Zribiam 1040, 1087, 1088, 1095, 1109, and Sribiae 1113), mainly in regard of being crossed by Saxons to attack Bohemia, or local castles being attacked by Bohemia, from there moved regional princes to Poland and back, or as a land where were banished people from Bohemia.^[119] In an 1140 royal charter to the lands east of river Saale were referred as Zurba.^[120]

Since then the Sorbian tribes mostly disappeared from the political scene. From the 11th to the 15th century, agriculture east of Elbe River developed and colonization by Frankish, Flemish and Saxon settlers intensified. The Slavs were allowed to live mainly in the periphery of the cities, and the military-administrative as well as religious authority was in the hands of the Germans. Despite the long process of Germanization, part of the Slavs living in Lusatia preserved their identity and language until now, and in the early 20th century there lived some 150 thousand Lusatian Sorbs.^[6]