Accra

Accra Kingdom

By the 15th century, the kingdom of Accra ruled the area from the capital at Ayawaso.^[19]

Initially, Accra was not the most prominent trading centre; the trading hubs were the ports at Ada and Prampram, along with the inland centres of Dodowa and Akuse.^[20] A Portuguese fort was destroyed by the local inhabitants in 1576; trade afterwards was conducted on the beaches.^[21] The Dutch later built the nearby Fort Crèvecœur while the British and the Swedes built James Fort and Christiansborg castles, respectively, in the 17th century.^[22]

By 1646 the kingdom was a regional power, bolstered by European trade. It depended on the goodwill of the rising Akwamu Kingdom, which controlled the trade routes in the interior. A dispute in 1646 escalated to war when Accra invaded Larteh.^[21] At the same time, Accra was weakened by a civil war.^[23]

Akwamu conquest of Greater Accra

In 1677 Akwamuhene Ansa Sasraku, using the circumcision of a visiting Akwamu prince as pretext, attacked Accra. He sacked Ayawaso and beheaded the king, Okai Koi.^[23] The king's son, Ofori, retreated to 'Small Accra', the town that had grown up under the walls of Fort Crèvecœur.^[24] Ansa Sasraku's attempts to finish off the Accrans were defeated by the guns of the Danish Fort Christianborg.^[25] Ofori and his people survived for years, until the Akwamu fomented a rebellion amongst the Danish garrison, and the fort was turned over to the Portuguese. Ansa Sasraku returned in 1681, burning Osu town and Small Accra and chasing Ofori to exile in Fetu.^[26] As Akwamu continued to expand, strips of land east and west were added to the Accra province.^[27]

British power increases

Britain gradually acquired the interests of all other countries beginning in 1851, when Denmark sold Christiansborg (which they had acquired from the Swedes) and their other forts to the British. The Netherlands was the last to sell out, in 1871. In 1873, after decades of tension between the British and Ashantis, the British captured Kumasi, destroying portions of the city. The British then captured Accra in 1874, and in 1877, at the end of the second Anglo-Asante War, Accra replaced Cape Coast as the capital of the British Gold Coast. This decision was made because Accra had a drier climate relative to Cape Coast. Until this time, the settlement of Accra was confined between Ussher Fort to the east and the Korle Lagoon to the west.^[28]

As the newly established Gold Coast's administrative functions were moved to Accra (1877), an influx of British colonial administrators and European settlers grew around the Christiansborg (what later is Osu, Ministries, Ridge, Labone, and Cantonments) began, and the city began to expand to accommodate the new residents. Victoriaborg was formed in the 19th century as an exclusively European residential neighbourhood, located to the east of the city limits of the time. The boundaries of Accra were further stretched in 1908, after a bubonic plague epidemic.^[29] This expansion entailed the creation of a native-only neighbourhood, intended to accommodate members of the native population as a means of relieving congestion problems in the overcrowded city centre. Adabraka was thus established to the north of the city.^[30]

In 1918, the Grand Orange Lodge of Ghana was established in Accra to oversee and govern the local Ghanaian Orange Lodges. The Ghanaian Orange Order focus on evangelism, positive values and youth development.^[31] They have Orange parades in the city, such as the 12th of July parade.^[32][33]

By the 1920s, transportation between Accra and the inland cities producing exportable commodities was enhanced. This allowed cocoa to become Accra's largest export and allowed commerce to overtake government as the primary element in the city.^[34]

Among the achievements of Guggisberg was the building of a bridge across the Korle Lagoon in 1923, which increased settlement at Korle Bu, Korle Gonno and Chokor, to the west of the lagoon. Guggisberg also oversaw the building of a hospital (Korle-Bu) and secondary school (Achimota).^[29]

After World War II

In 1948, Ghana remained a colony of Great Britain following World War II. The chief of Osu Alata, Nii Kobina Bonney III, had set up a boycott of European goods across the country due to the rise of prices for essential commodities.^[35] At the same time, veterans of the war were fighting for their benefits and promised pay.^[36]

After Kwame Nkrumah became Ghana's first Prime Minister in 1957, he created his own plan for Accra's development.^[37] Nkrumah proposed creating spaces to inspire pride and nationalism in his people and people throughout Africa.^[38]

The Parliament, Supreme Court of Ghana, Black Star Square and the Bank of Ghana are located in Accra.^{[39][40][citation needed][41]} The city is a transportation hub, home to Accra International Airport, and railway links to Tema, Sekondi-Takoradi and Kumasi. Accra has become a location for national and international business conferences, such as the BarCamp Ghana series, organised by GhanaThink Foundation.^[42]

Pre-school

Pre-school comprises nursery and kindergarten. In 2001, there were 7,923 children (3,893 girls and 4,030 boys) in pre-schools in Accra. In 2010, the enrolment rate at Pre-school was 98%.^[56]

Primary school

Primary school enrolment of girls is higher than that of boys.^[56] In 2010, the enrollment rate at primary school level was 95%.^[56]

Junior high school (JHS)

In the 2001/2002 academic year, 61,080 pupils had enrolled in Accra, representing 57.17% of the 129,467 school-age 12–to-14-year-olds. In 2010, the enrolment rate at Junior high school level was 95%.^[56] The ratio of girls is higher at this level.^[56]

Senior high school (SHS)

Achimota School

The transition rate between junior high and senior high school increased from 30% in 1990 to 50% in 2001. The number of students grew by 23,102 between 1990 and 2005, an increase of about 2,310 a year, since 2010 the senior high school enrolment rate has been 95%.^[56]

Ghana International School (GIS), a private non-profit A-Level school founded in 1955 for children from ages 3–18, is located in Accra's Cantonments. Abelemkpe is the home of Lincoln Community School, a private, non-profit International Baccalaureate (IB) school for students aged 3–18, established in 1968.^[57]

A number of public secondary schools lie on the outskirts of Accra: Achimota School, also referred to as "Motown", which was founded in 1924 and opened in 1927;^[58] the Accra Academy, known as "Accra Aca"; the Presbyterian Boys' Secondary School in Legon, also known as "Presec"; Wesley Grammar School – WESS-G Dansoman, St. Mary's Senior High School, also referred to as "Merriez", is a girls' boarding school in Ghana; St. Thomas Aquinas Senior High School, also known as "Quinas"; Accra High School also known as "Ahisco"; West Africa Secondary School, also known as "WASS"; the Accra Girls' Senior High School, also known as "Agiss"; Kaneshie Secondary Technical School ("Kateco"); the Armed Forces Secondary Technical; and St. John's Grammar School; among others.

Universities

The University of Ghana is located 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) north of the city centre at Legon. A number of other public and private universities and tertiary institutions have since been founded in Accra, some of which are listed below.

Institutes

• French Institute of Ghana^[59]

Water

As a growing city, Accra has a water supply and scarcity challenge.^[60] Water access uses a patchwork of different delivery processes.^[60]

Pollution

Accra as a growing city, with vehicles and other urban pollution sources, has an increasing amount of air pollution and plastic pollution. Accra's urban ecosystem has been a site of dumping by international waste networks, with the Agbogbloshie suburb known for its e-waste recycling sites, and the Kantamanto Market as handling an overwhelming flow of used fast fashion from other parts of the world.^[61] Both sites are sources of pollution and trash for other parts of the urban ecosystem.^[61][62]

Air pollution varies seasonally, and the average measure PM_2.5 average concentration of 49.5 μg/m³.^[63] Live monitoring of air pollution is done at three sites in the city of Accra.^[64] A 2021 review by the Environmental Protection Agency in Ghana found that the levels were exceeding national and international standards for health.^[65]

Plastic management is also an increasing challenge.^[66] Use of plastic water bottles water sachets and other packaging for food safety, and use of plastic during events like COVID-19 have increased plastic pollution.^[67] The beaches around Accra have plastic pollution, and surrounding fisheries are impacted by plastics.^[68] Non-profit organizations have been formed to collect the plastic and an increasingly growing network of recyclers and informal waste recovery networks.^[68][67][69] Activists and researchers largely attribute the issue to upstream use of plastics.^[68]

Rapid transit

Accra is connected by railway line to Kumasi and Takoradi.^[75] There is a suburban railway line from Accra Central Station to Tema.^[76]

Aviation

Accra is served by Accra International Airport, which has civil and military uses.^[77] Located 6 miles (9.7 kilometres) from downtown Accra, the airport handles all of the city's scheduled passenger services. There are plans to build a second airport to relieve the aviation pressure on the Accra International Airport. This new airport will be located at Prampram in Accra and will be constructed by China Airport Civil Construction. This plan was still under review in 2020, as additional runways at Kotoka are in consideration as an alternative to a new international airport.^[78]

Taxis

Accra has a taxi network and taxi ranks, and most taxis lack a meter system, so price negotiation is required between the passenger and driver. Metered taxis operate in the city, and tend to be more expensive. Taxis in Ghana are painted in two colours: the four bumpers fenders are yellow/orange, and the rest of the car is in a colour of the operator's choice. These taxis usually function on a shared ride model, where several passengers share one vehicle and the fare is calculated based on the distance traveled. More modern taxi services such as Uber, Taxify, and Yango have joined the market, providing a more advanced and comfortable alternative. Some taxi drivers might charge extra for luggage or late-night trips while some also offer fixed prices and allow for advance bookings, offering a more reliable and secure option.^[79]

Tro tros and buses

Tro tros (minibuses or cargo vans modified for passenger transport) is the third biggest, and second most efficient and cost-effective way of getting around the city. The buses are typically minibuses or vans. Some models used as tro tros are Nissan Urvan 15-seaters and Mercedes Benz Sprinter or D 309 vans. Trotros are typically decorated with decals such as flags of countries or (local and international) soccer teams, popular sayings, proverbs (in English or local languages) or Bible verses. Trotros pick up and offload passengers at designated bus stops along their regular routes. Tro tros will also usually offload at undesignated locations along the route, by passenger request. Most routes commence and terminate at urban transport terminals such as the Neoplan station or the Achimota Transport Terminal.^[80]