Halabja

Halabja (هەڵەبجە) is a city in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, located in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains near the border with Iran, sitting at an elevation of approximately 700 metres above sea level and fed by the Sirwan River. It is the capital of Halabja Governorate, which was elevated to full governorate status by the Iraqi parliament in April 2025.^[1] The Kurdistani Jews, alongside the Syanize Mal group, were among the founders of the city and initially settled near the Nawale spring.^[2] Halabja is one of Iraq's most fertile regions, receiving 700 to 900 millimetres of rainfall annually, locally known as Bawayanî (بواینی), meaning "blessed land."^[3] Today the city is home to approximately 140,000 people, the vast majority of whom are Kurdish. While most residents speak the Sorani dialect of Kurdish, many also preserve the Hawrami language, creating a linguistic bridge to Iranian Kurdistan's neighbouring Kermanshah Province.^[3] Historically a seat of power for the Jaff tribe, Halabja is internationally known for the Halabja massacre of 1988, in which thousands of Kurdish civilians were killed in a chemical attack ordered by the Iraqi government under Saddam Hussein.^[4] The city is also notable for producing several prominent poets, scholars, and political figures throughout its history.^[5]

CountryIraq

Elevation

700 m (2,300 ft)

Time zoneUTC+3 (AST)

Quick facts هەڵەبجە, Country ...

Halabja هەڵەبجە
Interactive map of Halabja
Coordinates: 35°10′N 45°59′E
Country	Iraq
Region	Kurdistan Region
Governorate	Halabja Governorate
Elevation	700 m (2,300 ft)
Population (2022)
• Total	140,000
Time zone	UTC+3 (AST)

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Etymology

The origin of the name "Halabja" is debated. Multiple theories have been proposed:^[6]^[7]

The first theory connects Halabja to ancient history. The Akkadian king Sargon of Akkad (c. 2334–2279 BCE) launched a campaign against a region then known as Har Har, covering the Halabja and Shahrizor area. After its conquest, Sargon renamed the settlement Kar Sharrukin (City of Sargon). The Kurdish historian Muhammad Amin Zaki suggested that the current city of Halabja may correspond to this ancient site.^[6] During the Hurrian period, the area appeared in Assyrian cuneiform texts as Kardakhar (also Khar Khar), situated on the Sirwan River. Some researchers consider this connection phonologically distant.^[7]

A second theory holds that the area's gardens, greenery, and water led people to call it Ajab Ja (عەجەب جا), "a wonderful place," which evolved into Halabja.^[7] A third theory derives the name from the Kurdish word Halwizha (هەڵوژە), a place where bee-eaters nest; villages near Halabja still pronounce the city's name as Halawja.^[6] A fourth theory holds the name derives from Haloja (هەڵۆجێ), "place of Hallo," referring to a prince of the Ardalan principality who held authority in the area around 1600–1615.^[7] A fifth theory, supported by scholar Jamal Baban, derives the name from Albje, noting that in the Jafi dialect the letter alef (ئ) regularly shifts to h (هـ), and that the name appears as Alabja in historical manuscripts.^[7]

History

Halabja is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the Kurdistan Region, with its present settled form spanning approximately 500 years.^[5] Its origins trace back to settlers from the Hawraman region and eastern Kurdistan (northwestern Iran).^[5] The city's development gained momentum during the Ottoman Empire, particularly following the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. There is broad agreement that the present city was built during the Ottoman period and developed after approximately 1700 CE.^[7] Over time, the city attracted nomads from Hawraman, aristocrats from Jawanro Castle (modern Javanrud), and influential families from the Ottoman Empire. The city became a melting pot of religions and nationalities, with its predominantly Muslim population living alongside Kaka'i (followers of Yarsanism) and Jewish communities.^[5] Notable Kurdish figures associated with the city include the poet Nali (c. 1800–1856), the Sufi scholar Sheikh Osmani Sirajaddin (1781–1867), and the poet Mawlawi Tawagozi (1806–1882).^[5]

Founding and Early Settlement

The Jaff tribe are credited as the founders of Halabja.^[7] According to local tradition, the first houses were built by the Begs of the Shiwêkal clan; over subsequent generations their descendants grew into the Syanize Mal (thirteen households), considered the original founding clans of the city.^[7] Jewish merchants later arrived, drawn by border trade, establishing themselves alongside the Jaff clans and contributing to Halabja's development as a commercial centre.^[7]

Administrative History and Demographics

Halabja was formally constituted as a qaza (administrative district) in 1889, becoming the second qaza established in Iraq after Najaf.^[7] Until 1930, the city comprised three main quarters: Pasha (the present city centre), Pir Muhammad, and Kani Ashqan.^[7] Following the establishment of the Iraqi state in 1920, Halabja qaza covered approximately 5,000 km² and encompassed around 375 villages, including the sub-districts of Sirwan, Shahrizor, Penjwin, Khurmal, and Wirmawa.^[7] Following Arabisation policies and forced village clearances by the Ba'athist government, only 18 villages remained by the 1987 census, down from 216 in 1977.^[7] The city today consists of 37 quarters and 132 streets, with a registered population of 117,661 people, 4 sub-districts (Khurmal, Biyara, Sirwan, and Bemo), 83 sectors, and 124 villages.^[7]

Working Class Resistance and the May 1987 Uprising

In the years preceding the 1988 massacre, Halabja had become a major centre of popular resistance against the Iran–Iraq War. By 1987, the Iraqi government had destroyed 45 villages around Halabja, driving the city's population to approximately 110,000, mostly army deserters and their families.^[8] Among political organisations, the Iraqi Communist Party was the only one regarded as credible by deserters, and the only one to warn publicly that the government intended to attack Halabja.^[8]

Just weeks before the uprising, on 16 April 1987, the Ba'athist regime carried out its first chemical attack against Kurdish civilians at the village of Sheikh Wasanan in the Balisan valley, killing more than 300 people, widely regarded as a test run for larger attacks.^[9]

On 13 May 1987, a pre-recorded announcement played over mosque loudspeakers called citizens to the streets. Two groups of protesters merged into a contingent of hundreds, among them eight women from the initial 20.^[9] Ali Hassan al-Majid (Chemical Ali), then secretary-general of the Ba'ath Party's northern region, issued orders to bury alive anyone injured in the protests, and drafted a "kill list" of 16 named organisers.^[9] Participant Chnur Kadr, then 20, who had been active with the Iraqi Communist Party, found her name on the list despite marching in men's clothing; she survived by changing disguise in a nearby home. Of the 16 named, only she and one friend survived.^[9] The uprising was suppressed by helicopter rocket fire and Jordanian troops; 200 people were rounded up and buried alive. Similar uprisings spread to four or five other Kurdish cities.^[8]

The events are commemorated in the documentary 13 May (2018) by Kurdish filmmaker Tariq Tofiq, screened at the Sulaymaniyah International Film Festival.^[9] The political tradition of communist activism in Halabja was institutionally continued by the Communist Party of Kurdistan – Iraq, founded in October 1993.^[10]

Lady Adela and the Jaff Tribe

Halabja served as the headquarters of Osman Pasha Jaff, a Kurdish king and leader of the Jaff tribe, the largest Kurdish tribal confederation in the Middle East.^[11] His wife, Lady Adela (Adela Khanem, c. 1847–1924), born to the aristocratic Sahibqeran family of Sanandaj in Iranian Kurdistan, became one of the most prominent leaders in the history of Kurdistan.^[12] When Mahmud Barzanji launched a revolt against British political officers in 1919, Lady Adela sheltered and gave refuge to the officers assigned to the Jaff tribe area; the British bestowed upon her the title "Khan-Bahadur" and named her the "Princess of the Brave."^[13] She continued to rule well beyond the death of Osman Pasha Jaff in 1909, and is recognised as the second female ruler of Halabja before the modern era.^[14] The British writer Gertrude Bell visited Halabja in 1921 and described Lady Adela in a famous letter,^[15] and Vladimir Minorsky recorded a meeting with her in 1913.^[16]

Jewish Community of Halabja

Halabja historically housed a Jewish community that established itself in the city's Jewish Quarter (گەڕەکی جولەکەکان, Gêrêka Jûlêkêkan).^[17] The Jewish residents were known as skilled merchants; the Pasha and Beg families showed them great respect and protection, reportedly making the Jewish community of Halabja freer than in many other Kurdish towns.^[17] The community built a synagogue approximately 100–150 metres from the main mosque, which was later purchased in 1954 for 55 Iraqi dinars and converted into the Ahmad Mosque (مزگەوتی ئەحمەدی), named after Ahmad ibn Hanbal.^[17] Following the establishment of the State of Israel in the early 1950s, Iraq revoked the citizenship of its Jewish population and compelled their emigration, stripping them of most of their property.^[17]

Preservation Efforts

As of 2020, remnants of the original houses, distinguishable by their distinct architecture, still survive in the Jewish Quarter but are deteriorating due to neglect.^[18] Archaeologist Hawar Najmaddin notes that historical surveys suggest around 850 Jewish residents once lived in the city, and stresses the quarter falls under heritage and cultural preservation law.^[2] The Halabja Heritage Directorate requested 1.5 billion Iraqi dinars to purchase and restore seven remaining houses; though approved in principle by the Ministry of Municipalities, no budget had been allocated as of reporting.^[18] Scholars have warned that unless urgent action is taken, nothing will remain of the Jewish Quarter but its name.^[18]

Kaka'i (Yarsani) Community

Among the religious communities historically present in Halabja is the Kaka'i (کاکەیی), also known as Yarsani or Ahl-e Haqq. In southern Kurdistan they are called Kaka'i; in Iran and eastern Kurdistan they are known as Yarsani.^[19] Scholars describe the Kaka'i as a Sufi-influenced religious order that developed in connection with Twelver Shia Islam. A distinctive feature of their theology is Dona-don (دۆنادۆن), the soul's journey through successive bodies across spiritual stages, distinct from reincarnation as it implies directional movement toward the divine origin.^[20] The origins of the faith are traced to Sultan Sahak of Barzinja (d. c. 612 AH), who is credited with systematising its principles.^[20]

1988 Chemical Attack

Background and Build-Up

In the weeks before the attack, clan leaders and army officers were secretly moved to Sulaymaniyah. Deserters had taken over the nearby town of Sirwan; the Iraqi air force subsequently destroyed the town entirely.^[8] Shortly before the chemical attack, Halabja was bombed for three days by Iranian artillery, then occupied by Iranian Pasdaran forces, with Peshmerga reported to have helped direct the bombardment.^[8]

The Attack

The Halabja massacre took place on 16 March 1988, when thousands of Kurdish civilians were killed in a large-scale chemical attack carried out by the Iraqi government as part of the Anfal campaign, led by Ali Hassan al-Majid.^[21]^[22] On the day of the massacre, Iranian soldiers had already withdrawn; no Pasdaran or Peshmerga were reported killed in the chemical assault.^[8] The BBC reported that a combination of mustard gas and the nerve agents tabun, sarin, and VX was used.^[23] Between 3,200 and 5,000 people were killed and 7,000 to 10,000 were injured, making the Halabja massacre the largest chemical weapons attack directed against a civilian-populated area in history.^[24]

Aftermath and International Response

In 2010, the Supreme Iraqi Criminal Tribunal officially defined the attack as a genocidal massacre against the Kurdish people.^[25] That same year the Parliament of Canada condemned the attack as a crime against humanity.^[26] Fewer than 15 individuals involved have ever faced prosecution.^[3] Survivors continue to suffer from cancer, chronic respiratory illnesses, birth defects, and psychological trauma. A 2022 study found that over 70% of soil in impacted areas shows lingering signs of toxicity.^[3] A U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency claim blaming Iran for the attack was later discredited. A British Foreign Office briefing paper concluded that sanctions would "damage British interests."^[27] Each year on 16 March, streets are adorned with black banners and schoolchildren recite poetry to honour the victims.^[3]

Halabja Peace Monument and Museum

At the centre of the city stands the Halabja Peace Monument, a memorial drawing over 100,000 visitors annually.^[3] The adjacent Halabja Peace Museum houses exhibits documenting the attack; its director Gulzar Azad has described it as "a place where the world learns about war, resilience, and the power of memory."^[3] A new memorial gateway, commissioned by Prime Minister Mohammed Shia' al-Sudani and built at a cost of approximately 1.937 billion Iraqi dinars (~US$1.34 million), was nearing completion in 2025.^[28]

Halabja Governorate

Halabja Governorate (پارێزگای هەڵەبجە) was formally recognised as Iraq's 19th province by the Iraqi Parliament on 14 April 2025, ending decades of affiliation with Sulaymaniyah Governorate.^[29] The Kurdistan Regional Government had unilaterally recognised Halabja as its fourth governorate on 13 March 2014.^[30] The governorate covers an area of 889 km² and comprises five districts: Halabja (central), Sirwan, Khurmal, Biyara, and Bemo.^[31]

Islamic Movement in Kurdistan and Halabja

The Kurdistan Islamic Movement (بزووتنەوەی ئیسلامی لە کوردستان, IMK) was founded in 1987 in Sanandaj, Iran, by Sheikh Osman Abdulaziz, with its base of support centred on Halabja and the surrounding areas; in the 2001 elections it received over 50% of the vote in Halabja.^[32] After failing to pass the threshold in the 1992 Kurdistan Region parliamentary elections, the IMK developed a separate military infrastructure with support from Iran and Syria, and conducted attacks against the joint PUK-KDP government.^[33] A Washington Institute for Near East Policy assessment described conditions in IMK-controlled territory around Halabja as resembling Taliban-era Afghanistan.^[34]

Several splinter groups emerged from the IMK, most significantly Ansar al-Islam, formed in 2001 under Mullah Krekar, which established an "Islamic Emirate" centred on Biyara and Tawela in the Halabja district.^[35] A 2002 Human Rights Watch investigation documented arbitrary arrests, prolonged detention, torture, and the killing of combatants after surrender in areas under Ansar al-Islam's control around Halabja.^[36] Ansar al-Islam's strongholds were destroyed in March 2003 by US airstrikes and PUK ground forces at the outset of the 2003 invasion of Iraq.^[37] The IMK was formally disarmed by the KRG in 2003 and has since operated solely as a political party.^[38]

Modern Governance

Following the 1991 Kurdish uprising, Halabja played a key role in the fall of the Ba'ath regime and supported the establishment of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG).^[5] On 19 March 2025, Nuxsha Nasih was appointed Acting Governor of Halabja, becoming the first woman to hold a governorate-level executive position in Iraq's history.^[39] She had previously served as Mayor of Halabja from 2016, making her the second woman to hold the top political office in the city after Lady Adela.^[40] In 2025, women activists from Halabja publicly expressed solidarity with Kurdish women in Rojava (Western Kurdistan) following attacks on the Sheikh Maqsoud and Ashrafieh neighbourhoods of Aleppo.^[41]

Religious Coexistence

Despite significant historical hardship, Halabja is characterised by coexistence among its different religious communities. As of 2025, distinct religious groups mutually respect one another's customs and participate together in each other's ceremonies.^[42] Residents describe interfaith coexistence (پێکەوەژیانی ئاینی) as a defining feature of Halabja's civilizational identity.^[43] The Kaka'i community remains present in the Halabja governorate area, particularly in the Hawari sub-district, practising its faith alongside the majority Sunni Muslim population.^[19]

Language

The majority of Halabja's residents speak Sorani, the dominant dialect of Kurdish in Iraqi Kurdistan. The city and its surrounding Hawraman region are also home to speakers of Hawrami (also known as Gorani), one of the oldest attested Kurdish language varieties, creating a linguistic bridge to Iranian Kurdistan's neighbouring Kermanshah Province.^[3]

Education

Halabja has one of the highest literacy rates in Iraq, exceeding 85%.^[3] University of Halabja was founded in 2011 and enrols over 6,000 students across disciplines ranging from engineering to the humanities.^[3] The geographical distribution of educational services in new Halabja was studied in a peer-reviewed paper published in the Twejer Journal in 2025 (University of Sulaymaniyah), identifying shortcomings in educational planning for 2022–2023.^[44]

Economy and Agriculture

Agriculture remains the cornerstone of Halabja's economy, employing more than 60% of its population.^[3] The legacy of the 1988 chemical attack continues to affect the land: a 2022 study found that over 70% of soil in impacted areas shows lingering signs of toxicity.^[3] Youth unemployment stands at an estimated 35%. The Halabja Innovation Hub, launched in 2022 and funded by the diaspora and international NGOs, supports young entrepreneurs in agribusiness and technology.^[3]

Pomegranates

The Halabja region is renowned for pomegranate cultivation. Eleven varieties are grown across approximately 8,500 dunums of orchards, yielding around 30,000 tons annually.^[45] An annual Pomegranate and Autumn Festival (ڤیستیڤاڵی هەنار و پایزی هەڵەبجە) has been held since 2007, showcasing pomegranates alongside other local products including Hawraman walnuts, Rasan olive oil, and traditional Kurdish foods.^[45]

Olive Oil

The Rasan Olive Oil Factory, established in 2018 by the Halabja Group, is Iraq's leading olive oil producer by volume, with a daily output of up to 120 tons and annual capacity of 150,000 litres.^[46] Rasan exports to Germany and the United Kingdom, with negotiations underway to export to Norway as well.^[46]

Tourism

Halabja and its sub-districts are home to several celebrated natural sites, including the Ahmad Awa resort and the Awesar waterfall.^[7] The Hawraman mountain region is a major draw for ecotourism and cultural tourism.^[5]

Pir Shaliyar Festival

The Pir Shaliyar Festival (مەراسیمی پیرشالیار), held annually in the village of Hawraman Takht, is one of the most prominent cultural and religious festivals of the Halabja region.^[47] Pir Shaliyar is believed to have been an ancient religious figure of the Hawraman area; both Rashid Yasami and Ayatollah Mardukh identify him as a Zoroastrian elder whose name traces back to the Mithraic religious period.^[47] The festival commemorates Pir Shaliyar's wedding, organised on his behalf by the people of Hawraman after he cured the deaf-and-mute daughter of the Emir of Bukhara. It lasts three days, featuring animal sacrifice, distribution of walnuts, dhikr (Sufi spiritual recitation), and a traditional broth said to be identical to the recipe served at the original wedding feast.^[47]

Environment

Halabja's urban green space coverage has reached 21%, compared to only 10% in Baghdad, achieved largely through voluntary and NGO efforts.^[48] However, out of 255 springs, 116 have run dry, and 4,861 trees have been damaged.^[48] The local NGO NWE implemented a "Let Us Green Kurdistan" project funded by the German-Iraqi organisation WADI through the BMZ, targeting nine schools across Halabja and its sub-districts.^[48]

Notable People Born in or Who Have Lived in Halabja

Politics and Leadership

Lady Adela (c. 1847–1924), Kurdish ruler of the Jaff tribe, called "Princess of the Brave" by the British.^[49]
Ahmad Mukhtar Jaff (1898–1934), Kurdish poet, politician, member of the Iraqi parliament, and mayor of Halabja.^[50]
Nuxsha Nasih (born 1978), Kurdish lawyer and politician; first female Acting Governor of Halabja and the first woman to serve as governor in Iraq's history.^[51]
Naren Briar (born c. 2000, Dallas, Texas), the first Kurdish-American woman elected to public office in the United States, elected to the Bellevue City Council on 4 November 2025. Her father is from Halabja; her family narrowly escaped the 1988 chemical attack.^[52]

Religion and Scholarship

Abdul Karim Mudarris (c. 1902–2005), born near Marivan, taught in the Halabja district from 1924 and served as Mufti of Iraq; credited as the first person to translate the Quran into Kurdish.^[53]

Literature and the Arts

Abdullah Goran (1904–1962), leading Kurdish poet and translator born in Halabja, who introduced blank verse and prose poetry into Kurdish literature.^[54]
Tara Jaff (born 1958), Kurdish singer and harpist born in Baghdad to a Halabja family of the Jaff tribe.^[55]
Mariwan Halabjaee (born 9 June 1963 in Halabja), Iraqi Kurdish writer and human rights activist, best known for Sex, Sharia and Women in the History of Islam (2005); often referred to as "the Salman Rushdie of Iraqi Kurdistan."^[56]
Mariwan Halabjaee (translator) (born 29 August 1979 in Halabja), Kurdish translator and literary critic; recipient of the Golden Ahmad Hardi Prize (2011).^[57]
Ayoub Nuri, Kurdish-Canadian journalist born in Halabja, author of Being Kurdish in a Hostile World (University of Regina Press, 2017).^[58]
Sarkaw Hadi Gorani (born 1 January 1973 in Hawraman, Halabja), Kurdish and French actor, filmmaker, and writer based in France; appeared in The Flowers of Kirkuk (2010) and Samba (2014).^[59]