Hobbes's moral and political philosophy

In developing his moral and political philosophy, Hobbes assumes the methodological approach of deductive reasoning, combining mathematics and the mechanics of science to formulate his ideas on human nature.^[1] Hobbes was critical of the assumptions of scholastic philosophers, whose evidence for human nature was based upon Aristotelian metaphysics and Cartesian observation, as opposed to reasoning and definition.^[5] Though Hobbes did not fully reject the value of observational or ‘prudential’ knowledge, he dismissed the view that this was at all scientific or philosophical in nature.^[5] To Hobbes, this type of knowledge was based on subjective and diverse experience, and was therefore capable of producing only speculative assumptions.^[5] This view predetermined Hobbes’s method of deductive reasoning, which involved the application of geometry, Galilean scientific concepts and definition.^[5] This scientific method stresses the importance of first establishing well-defined principles of human nature (moral philosophy) and ‘deducing’ aspects of political life from this.^[1] Hobbes first used the mechanics of motion to define principles of human perception, behaviour and reasoning, which were then used to draw the conclusions of his political philosophy (sovereignty, state of nature).^[1] In rejecting what he believed were ‘conjectures’ relating to intangible or supernatural objects or realities, Hobbes’s philosophy is drawn from material and physical reality and experience.^[3] Höffe explains how Hobbes applied this method to construct his political theory of sovereignty:

“…the combination of mathematics and mechanics, is not sufficient on its own… the combination of mathematics and mechanics leads to the metaphor of the state as an “artificial” human being, which is comparable to a machine constructed out of natural human beings; (3) the resoluto-compositive [the recourse to absolutely first principles or elements] method defines and clarifies the nature of this construction: the artificial human being is decomposed into its smallest constituent parts and then recomposed, i.e., constructed, out of these parts".^[3]

Hobbes’s moral principles thus provide the ultimate basis for his political philosophy, defining and clarifying how an “artificial” sovereign authority may come into existence.^[3]

Hobbes’s moral philosophy is the fundamental starting point from which his political philosophy is developed. This moral philosophy outlines a general conceptual framework on human nature which is rigorously developed in The Elements of Law, De Cive and Leviathan.^[5] These works examine how the laws of motion influence human perception, behaviour and action, which then determine how individuals interact.^[5] The Elements of Law provides insight into Hobbes’s moral philosophy through ideas of sensation, pleasure, passion, pain, memory and reason.^[6] This is expanded upon in De Cive: “… human nature… comprising the faculties of body and mind; . . . Physical force, Experience Reason and Passion".^[6] Hobbes believes that as sensory organs process the movements of external stimuli, a range of different mental experiences take place, which in turn dictate human behaviour.^[7] What emerged from this idea of motion was the view that humans are naturally drawn towards, or desire, things that benefit their overall wellbeing; things that are “good” for them.^[7] These are called “appetites”, and what differentiates the human ‘appetite’ from that of animals is reason.^[4] Reason, or “ratiocination”, as used by Hobbes, was not defined in the traditional sense as an innate capability tied to notions of natural law, but as an activity that involved coming to a judgement via the process of logic.^[6] Humans, as noted in Leviathan, have “…knowledge of the consequences of one affirmation to another”.^[6] Individuals will desire and select whatever ‘thing’ brings them the most “good”.^[7] This process of thinking is a consequence of motion and mechanics more than a conscious exercise of choice.^[7] Ratiocination leads individuals to uncover the Laws of Nature, which Hobbes deems “the true moral philosophy”.^[2]

Hobbes’s understanding of human nature establishes the foundations for his political philosophy by explaining the essence of conflict (in the state of nature) and cooperation (in a commonwealth).^[6] Because human beings will always pursue what is ‘good’ for them, this philosophy asserts that individuals share overarching desires or goals, such as security and safety (especially from death).^[6] This is the point in which Hobbes’s moral and political philosophy intersect: in “our shared conception of ourselves as rational agents”.^[2] It is rational to “pursue the necessary means to our dominant shared ends”, in which case the “necessary means” is submission to a sovereign authority.^[5] By establishing morality as a force which directs individuals towards their shared desires and goals of, for example, peace and security, and the means to achieve these goals is through the creation of a state, Hobbes grounds his political philosophy in his moral thought.^[5] This approach to moral philosophy is executed by Hobbes through discussion of a range of interrelated moral concepts: “good, evil, rights, obligation, justice, contract, covenant and natural law”.^[5]

Hobbes’s concept of moral obligation stems from the assumption that humans have a fundamental obligation to follow the laws of nature and all obligations stem from nature.^[8] His reasoning for this is premised upon the beliefs of natural law; that the moral standards or reasoning that govern behaviour can be drawn from eternal truths regarding human nature and the world.^[1] Hobbes believes that the morals derived from natural law, however, do not permit individuals to challenge the laws of the sovereign; law of the commonwealth supersedes natural law, and obeying the laws of nature does not make you exempt from disobeying those of the government.^[1]

Hobbes’s concept of moral obligation thus intertwines with the concept of political obligation. This underpins much of Hobbes’s political philosophy, stating that humans have a political obligation or ‘duty’ to prevent the creation of a state of nature, also referred to by Hobbes as a state of war.^[9] Humans have a political obligation to obey a sovereign power, and once they have renounced part of their natural rights to this power (theory of sovereignty), they have a duty to uphold the ‘social contract’ they have entered into.^[9]