Bureau of Indian Affairs

Early US agencies and legislation: Intercourse Acts

Agencies related to Native Americans originated in 1775, when the Second Continental Congress created a trio of Indian-related agencies. Benjamin Franklin and Patrick Henry were appointed among the early commissioners to negotiate treaties with Native Americans to obtain their neutrality during the American Revolutionary War.^[11]

Office of Indian Trade (1806–1822)

In 1789, the U.S. Congress placed Native American relations within the newly formed War Department. By 1806 the Congress had created a Superintendent of Indian Trade, or "Office of Indian Trade"^[12] within the War Department, who was charged with maintaining the United States Government Fur Trade Factory System. The post was held by Thomas L. McKenney from 1816 until the abolition of the factory system in 1822.

The government licensed traders to have some control in Indian territories and gain a share of the lucrative trade.

Bureau of Indian Affairs (1824–present)

The abolition of the factory system left a vacuum within the U.S. government regarding Native American relations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was formed on March 11, 1824, by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun, who created the agency as a division within his department, without authorization from the United States Congress.^[13] He appointed McKenney as the first head of the office, which went by several names. McKenney preferred to call it the "Indian Office", whereas the current name was preferred by Calhoun.

The bureau was initially organized by region, with commissions for Superintendents of Indian Affairs granted to prominent citizens in each region of the southern, midwestern and western United States. These superindenents were authorized to negotiate with tribes and oversaw Indian agents in their assigned region.^[14][15] The bureau was eventually reorganized in 1878, with superintendencies removed. These were eventually replaced with regional offices, which continue today.

The Removal Era (1830–1850)

The BIA's goal to protect domestic and dependent nations, was reaffirmed by the 1831 court case Cherokee Nation v. Georgia. The Supreme Court originally refused to hear the case, because the Cherokee nation was not an independent state and could not litigate in the federal court.^[16] It was not until the court case Worcester v. Georgia, when Chief Justice John Marshall allowed Native American tribes to be recognized as "domestic dependent nations." These court cases set precedent for future treaties, as more Native tribes were recognized as domestic and dependent nations.^[17]

This period was encompassed by westward expansion and the removal of Native Nations. In 1833 Georgians fought for the removal of the Cherokee Nation from the state of Georgia. Despite the rulings of Worcester v. Georgia, President Jackson and John C. Calhoun created a plan for removal. The removal of the Cherokee Nation occurred in 1838 and was accompanied by the Treaty of 1846. When reparations from the treaty were unfulfilled, the Senate Committee on the Indian Affairs made the final settlement in 1850. This settlement, "supported the position of the Cherokee that the cost of maintaining the tribesman during their removal and the years upkeep after their arrival West should be paid by the federal government, and the expense of the removal agents should be paid as well."^[16]

In 1832 Congress established the position of Commissioner of Indian Affairs. In 1849 Indian Affairs was transferred to the newly established U.S. Department of the Interior. In 1869, Ely Samuel Parker was the first Native American to be appointed as commissioner of Indian affairs.

Assimilation (1890–1930)

One of the most controversial policies of the Bureau of Indian Affairs was the late 19th to early 20th century decision to Americanize native children via education in boarding schools, such as the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. These boarding schools separated students from their family and local cultures, training students to behave in accordance with the prevailing standard of "civilization": Anglo-American cultural practices. The goal was to enable native children to more easily leave their reservations via cultural assimilation into American society (at the time natives were viewed as trapped on their reservations). The boarding schools prohibited students from using their indigenous languages, practices, and cultures.^[18]

Another force for assimilation and Euro-American control was the Bureau of Indian Affairs tribal police force. This was designed by its agents to decrease the power of American Indian leaders.^[19]

Reform and reorganization (mid to late 20th century)

The bureau was renamed from Office of Indian Affairs to Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1947.

In 1965 the headquarters of the Bureau of Indian Affairs was moved from the Interior Department's main building at 18th St. NW. and C St. NW., Washington, D.C., to a separate building a few blocks away at 1951 Constitution Avenue NW., Washington, D.C.^[20]

With the rise of American Indian activism in the 1960s and 1970s and increasing demands for enforcement of treaty rights and sovereignty, the 1970s were a particularly turbulent period of BIA history.^[21] The rise of activist groups such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) worried the U.S. government; the FBI responded both overtly and covertly (by creating COINTELPRO and other programs) to suppress possible uprisings among native peoples.^[22]

As a branch of the U.S. government with personnel on Indian reservations, BIA police were involved in political actions such as:

The occupation of BIA headquarters in Washington, D.C., in 1972: On November 3, 1972, a group of around 500 American Indians with the AIM took over the BIA building, the culmination of their Trail of Broken Treaties walk. They intended to bring attention to American Indian issues, including their demands for renewed negotiation of treaties, enforcement of treaty rights and improvement in living standards. They occupied the Department of Interior headquarters from November 3 to 9, 1972.^[23]

Feeling the government was ignoring them, the protesters vandalized the building. After a week, the protesters left, having caused $700,000 in damages. Many records were lost, destroyed or stolen, including irreplaceable treaties, deeds, and water rights records, which some Indian officials said could set the tribes back 50 to 100 years.^{[24][25][citation needed]}

• The Wounded Knee Incident of 1973, where activists at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation occupied land for more than two months.
• The 1975 Pine Ridge shootout (for which Leonard Peltier was convicted of killing two FBI agents).^[26]

The BIA was implicated in supporting controversial tribal presidents, notably Dick Wilson, who was charged with being authoritarian; using tribal funds for a private paramilitary force, the Guardians of the Oglala Nation (or "GOON squad"), which he employed against opponents; intimidation of voters in the 1974 election; misappropriation of funds, and other misdeeds.^[27] Many native peoples continue to oppose policies of the BIA. In particular, problems in enforcing treaties, handling records and trust land incomes were disputed.

21st century

In 2002, Congress worked with the bureau to prepare bill S.1392, which established procedures for tribal recognition. A separate bill S. 1393 ensured full and fair participation in decision-making processes at the bureau via grants. Both bills addressed what services, limitations, obligations, and responsibilities a federally recognized tribe possessed. The bills excluded any splinter groups, political factions, and any groups formed after December 31, 2002.^[28]

In 2013 the bureau was greatly affected by sequestration funding cuts of $800 million, which particularly affected the already-underfunded Indian Health Service.^[29][30]

Employee overtime

The Bureau of Indian Affairs has been sued four times in class action overtime lawsuits brought by the Federation of Indian Service Employees,^[31] a union which represents the federal civilian employees of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Bureau of Indian Education, the assistant secretary of Indian affairs and the Office of the Special Trustee for Indian Affairs. The grievances allege widespread violations of the Fair Labor Standards Act and claim tens of millions of dollars in damages.

Trust assets

Cobell vs. Salazar, a major class action case related to trust lands, was settled in December 2009. The suit was filed against the U.S. Department of Interior, of which the BIA is a part. A major responsibility has been the management of the Indian trust accounts. This was a class-action lawsuit regarding the federal government's management and accounting of more than 300,000 individual American Indian and Alaska Native trust accounts. A settlement fund totaling $3.4 billion is to be distributed to class members. This is to compensate for claims that prior U.S. officials had mismanaged the administration of Indian trust assets. In addition, the settlement establishes a $2 billion fund enabling federally recognized tribes to voluntarily buy back and consolidate fractionated land interests.^[32]

Superintendents of Indian trade

From 1806 until 1822, relations with the North American tribes were regulated by the Office of Indian Trade within the Treasury Department. Three men were appointed during this time period as superintendents to negotiate treaties with and regulate trade with the native Americans.

More information Image, Superintendent ...

No.	Image	Superintendent	Term started	Term ended	Refs.
1		John Shee	July 8, 1806	October 3, 1807	[35]
2		John Mason	October 4, 1807	April 1, 1816	[36]
3		Thomas L. McKenney	April 12, 1816	May 6, 1822	[37]

Close

Superintendent of Indian Affairs

On the same day Congress abolished the trading houses in May 1822, Congress authorized a new position of superintendent of Indian affairs, with President James Monroe nominating, and the Senate confirming, William Clark as superintendent of Indian affairs. In 1824, the office was reorganized and William Clark's position became subservient to the new chief clerk of the Indian Office.^[38]

More information Image, Superintendent ...

No.	Image	Superintendent	Term started	Term ended	Notes
1		William Clark	May 28, 1822	March 11, 1824	[38]
			March 12, 1824	September 1, 1838	position became subservient to the chief clerk[38]

Close

Chief clerks of the Indian Office

The following three persons had served as chief clerk of the Indian Office within the War Department from 1824 until the office was transferred to the Interior Department in 1832:^[39]

More information Image, Chief Clerk ...

No.	Image	Chief Clerk	Term started	Term ended	Refs.
1		Thomas L. McKenney	March 12, 1824	August 16, 1830	[37]
2		Samuel S. Hamilton	September 30, 1830	August 31, 1831	[40]
3		Elbert Herring	August 12, 1831	July 9, 1832	[41]

Close

Commissioners of Indian affairs

The following persons have led the Bureau of Indian Affairs as Commissioner from 1832 until 1981:^[42][43][39]

More information Image, Commissioner ...

No.	Image	Commissioner	Term started	Term ended	Refs.
1		Elbert Herring	July 10, 1832	July 2, 1836	[41]
2		Carey A. Harris	July 4, 1836	October 19, 1838	[44]
3		Thomas Hartley Crawford	October 22, 1838	October 29, 1845	[45]
4		William Medill	October 28, 1845	June 30, 1849	[46]
5		Orlando Brown	June 30, 1849	July 1, 1850	[47]
6		Luke Lea	July 1, 1850	March 24, 1853	[48]
7		George Washington Manypenny	March 31, 1853	March 30, 1857	[49]
8		James W. Denver	April 17, 1857	December 2, 1857	[50]
9		Charles E. Mix	June 14, 1858	November 8, 1858	[51]
10		James W. Denver	November 8, 1858	March 31, 1859	[50]
11		Alfred B. Greenwood	May 4, 1859	April 13, 1861	[52]
12		William P. Dole	March 12, 1861	July 11, 1865	[53]
13		Dennis N. Cooley	July 9, 1865	November 1, 1866	[54]
14		Lewis V. Bogy	November 1, 1866	March 29, 1867	[55]
15		Nathaniel Green Taylor	March 29, 1867	April 25, 1869	[56]
16		Ely S. Parker[a]	April 26, 1869	July 24, 1871	[57]
Acting		Henry R. Clum	July 24, 1871	November 20, 1871	[34]
17		Francis A. Walker	November 27, 1871	January 1, 1873	[58]
18		Edward Parmelee Smith	March 17, 1873	December 11, 1875	[59]
19		John Q. Smith	December 11, 1875	September 27, 1877	[60]
20		Ezra A. Hayt	September 20, 1877	January 29, 1880	[61]
21		Rowland E. Trowbridge	March 15, 1880	March 19, 1881	[62]
Acting		Henry R. Clum	March 19, 1881	April 14, 1881	[34]
22		Hiram Price	May 6, 1881	March 26, 1885	[63]
23		John DeWitt Clinton Atkins	March 21, 1885	June 14, 1888	[64]
24		John H. Oberly	October 10, 1888	June 30, 1889	[65]
25		Thomas Jefferson Morgan	July 1, 1889	March 3, 1893	[66]
26		Daniel M. Browning	April 13, 1893	May 3, 1897	[67]
27		William Arthur Jones	May 3, 1897	January 1, 1905	[68]
28		Francis E. Leupp	January 1, 1905	June 18, 1909	[69]
29		Robert G. Valentine	June 29, 1909	September 10, 1912	[70]
Acting		Frederick H. Abbott	September 10, 1912	June 4, 1913	[34]
30		Cato Sells	June 2, 1913	March 29, 1921	[71]
31		Charles H. Burke	May 7, 1921	June 30, 1929	[72]
32		Charles J. Rhoads	April 18, 1929	April 20, 1933	[73]
33		John Collier	April 21, 1933	January 22, 1945	[74]
34		William A. Brophy	March 6, 1945	June 3, 1948	[75]
acting		William R. Zimmerman	June 3, 1948	March 10, 1949	[34]
35		John R. Nichols	April 13, 1949	March 23, 1950	[76]
36		Dillon S. Myer	May 5, 1950	March 19, 1953	[77]
Acting		W. Barton Greenwood	March 20, 1953	July 28, 1953	[34][78]
37		Glenn L. Emmons	August 10, 1953	January 7, 1961	[79][80]
acting		John O. Crow[b]	February 10, 1961	September 25, 1961	[81][82][83]
38		Philleo Nash	September 26, 1961	March 15, 1966	[84][85][86]
39		Robert L. Bennett[c]	April 27, 1966	May 31, 1969	[87][88][89]
40		Louis R. Bruce[d]	August 8, 1969	January 20, 1973	[90][91][92]
Acting		Marvin L. Franklin[e]	February 7, 1973	December 4, 1974	[34]
41		Morris Thompson[f]	December 4, 1973	November 3, 1976	[93]
42		Benjamin Reifel[g]	December 7, 1976	January 28, 1977	[94][95]
Acting		Raymond Butler	January 28, 1977	September 19, 1977	[34]
43		William E. Hallett[h]	December 16, 1979	January 19, 1981	[96][97]

Close

Table notes:

Assistant secretaries of the interior for Indian affairs

The following persons have led the Bureau of Indian Affairs as assistant secretaries of the interior for Indian affairs since 1977:^[98][34]

More information Image, Assistant Secretary ...

No.	Image	Assistant Secretary	Term started	Term ended	Affiliation	Refs.
1		Forrest Gerard	September 12, 1977	January 19, 1980	Blackfeet	[99][100][101]
2		Thomas W. Fredericks[a]	June 18, 1980	January 19, 1981	Mandan–Hidatsa	[102]
3		Kenneth L. Smith	May 13, 1981	December 7, 1984	Wasco	[103][104][105]
4		Ross Swimmer	December 5, 1985	January 29, 1989	Cherokee	[106][107]
acting		William Patrick Ragsdale	January 29, 1989	June 20, 1989	Cherokee	[34][108]
5		Eddie Frank Brown	June 26, 1989	July 16, 1993	Yaqui	[109][110]
6		Ada E. Deer	July 16, 1993	November 12, 1997	Menominee	[111][112]
7		Kevin Gover	November 12, 1997	January 3, 2001	Pawnee	[113]
acting		James H. McDivitt	January 20, 2001	July 3, 2001		[34]
8		Neal A. McCaleb	July 4, 2001	January 6, 2003	Chickasaw	[114]
acting		Aurene M. Martin	January 6, 2003	February 2, 2004	Bad River Chippewa	[34]
9		Dave Anderson	February 2, 2004	February 12, 2005	Lac Court Oreille Chippewa	[115][116][117]
acting		Jim Cason	February 12, 2005	March 5, 2007	"non-Indian"	[34][118]
10		Carl J. Artman	March 8, 2007	May 23, 2008	Oneida	[119]
acting		George T. Skibine	May 23, 2008	January 20, 2009	Osage	[34]
11		Larry Echo Hawk	May 22, 2009	April 27, 2012	Pawnee	[120]
acting		Donald "Del" Laverdure	April 27, 2012	October 9, 2012	Crow	[34][121]
12		Kevin K. Washburn	October 9, 2012	December 31, 2015	Chickasaw	[122]
acting		Lawrence S. Roberts	January 1, 2016	January 20, 2017	Oneida	[123][34]
acting		Michael S. Black	January 20, 2017	June 11, 2017	Oglala Sioux	[124][34]
acting		John Tahsuda	September 3, 2017	July 9, 2018	Kiowa	[125]
13		Tara Sweeney	July 9, 2018	January 20, 2021	Inupiat	[126][127][128]
acting		Darryl LaCounte	January 21, 2021	September 7, 2021	Turtle Mountain Chippewa	[129][130]
14		Bryan Newland	September 8, 2021	January 20, 2025	Ojibwe	[131][132][133]
acting		Bryan Mercier	January 20, 2025	March 18, 2025	Grand Ronde	[134][135]
acting		Scott Davis	March 18, 2025	September 3, 2025	Standing Rock Sioux	[136][137][138]
acting		Janel Broderick	September 3, 2025	October 9, 2025	"non-Indian"	[139][140]
15		William Kirkland	October 9, 2025	Present	Navajo	[141]

Close

Table notes:

Deputy commissioners

Deputy commissioners were assistants to the assistant secretary of the interior for Indian affairs from 1981 to 2003.^[142]

Bureau directors

Bureau directors are assistants to the assistant secretary of the interior for Indian affairs since 2003.^[142]

More information Image, BIA Director ...

No.	Image	BIA Director	Term started	Term ended	Affiliation	Refs.
1		Terry Virden	July 1, 2002	2004	White Earth Chippewa	[143]
2		Brian Pogue	May 27, 2004	2005	Cherokee	[144]
3		William Patrick Ragsdale	February 13, 2005	2007	Cherokee	[145]
4		Jerold L. Gidner	September 17, 2007	2010	Sault Chippewa	[146][147]
5		Michael S. Black	April 25, 2010	November 2016	Oglala Sioux	[148]
6		Weldon "Bruce" Loudermilk	2016	September 2017	Fort Peck	[149][150]
7		Bryan C. Rice	October 16, 2017	2018	Cherokee	[151][152]
8		Darryl LaCounte	April 28, 2019	September 30, 2024	Turtle Mountain Chippewa	[153]
9		Bryan Mercier	September 30, 2024	Present	Grand Ronde	[154]

Close