List of Indian residential schools in Canada
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The following is a list of schools that operated as part of the Canadian Indian residential school system.[nb 1][1][2] The first opened in 1828, and the last closed in 1997.[3][4][5] These schools operated in all Canadian provinces and territories except Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick.[6]
| Abbreviation | Religious denomination |
|---|---|
| (AN) | Anglican Church |
| (BP) | Baptist |
| (MD) | Methodist |
| (OO) | Other |
| (PB) | Presbyterian Church |
| (RC) | Roman Catholic Church |
| (UC) | United Church of Canada |
The Indian Residential School Settlement Agreement (IRSSA) has formally recognized 139 residential schools across Canada, but this number excludes schools that operated without federal support.[6]
The last school to close was Kivalliq Hall in Rankin Inlet, in what is now Nunavut, which closed in 1997; it became a IRSSA-recognized school in 2019 following a court ruling, which is why earlier accounts describe the last school closing in 1996.[6]
Schools in Newfoundland and Labrador were not included in the original settlement by the Harper government and instead reached a compensation deal with the federal government after a lawsuit in 2016.[7][8][9]
List
| Name[1][2] | Location | Province/territory | Opened | Closed | Denomination | Documented deaths[10] | Gravesites |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Assumption (Hay Lake) Indian Residential School[11] | Assumption
(Hay Lake) |
AB | 1951 | 1970 | RC | 2 | |
| Shubenacadie Indian Residential School | Shubenacadie | NS | 1929 | 1967 | RC | 23 | |
| Blue Quill (Lac la Biche/Saddle Lake/Sacred Heart) Indian Residential School
(Hospice of St. Joseph; Lac la Biche/St. Paul's Boarding School)[12] |
Lac la Biche (1862-1898)
Saddle Lake (1898-1931) St. Paul (1898-1931) |
AB | 1862 | 1970 (became the first Native-administered school in Canada) | RC | 43 | Accidentally exhumed multiple graves in 2004;[13] intentionally exhumed 1 grave in 2024[14] |
| Holy Angels Indian Residential School
(École des Saints-Anges / Our Lady of Victoria Indian Residential School) |
Fort Chipewyan | AB | 1902 | 1974 | RC | 83 | |
| Crowfoot (St. Joseph's) Indian Residential School
(Blackfoot Residential School)[15] |
Blackfoot Crossing (1900-1909) | AB | 1900 | 1968 | RC | 48 | |
| St. Joseph's (Dunbow) Industrial School
(High River Industrial School) |
High River | AB | 1884 | 1922 | RC | 59 | Flood exposed 34 graves in 1996[16] |
| Edmonton (Poundmaker) Residential School[17][18] | St. Albert | AB | 1924 (formerly Red Deer Industrial School) | 1968 | MD | 33 | |
| Ermineskin Indian Residential School | Hobbema | AB | 1915 | 1973 | RC | 15 | |
| St. Mary’s (Blood) Indian Residential School (Immaculate Conception Boarding School)[19] | Stand-Off
(Blood) |
AB | 1898 | 1988 | RC | 49 | |
| Morley (Stoney) Residential School
(McDougall Orphanage and Training Institution) |
Morley
(Stoney) |
AB | 1926 | 1949 | MD | 16 | |
| Old Sun (Blackfoot) Residential School[20]
(North Camp Residential School / White Eagle's Boarding School / Short Robe Boarding School) |
Gleichen | AB | 1894 | 1971 | AN | 41 | |
| Sacred Heart (Peigan) Residential School[21] | Brocket
(Peigan) |
AB | 1892 | 1961 | RC | 41 | |
| Red Deer Industrial School | Red Deer | AB | 1893 | 1919 (Poundmaker school opened 5 years later) | MD | 60 | |
| Sarcee (St. Barnabas) Residential School[22] | Sarcee Junction, Calgary | AB | 1892 | 1921 | AN | 35 | |
| St. Albert (Youville) Residential School[23] | St. Albert | AB | 1873 | 1948 | RC | 73 | |
| Whitefish Lake (St. Andrew's) Residential School | Whitefish Lake | AB | 1895 | 1950 | AN | 4 | |
| Grouard (St. Bernard’s) Residential School | Grouard | AB | 1894 | 1957 | RC | 15 | Radar detected 196 potential graves in 2022[24] |
| Joussard (St. Bruno's) Residential School | Joussard | AB | 1913 | 1969 | RC | 30 | Radar detected 88 potential graves in 2022[25] |
| St. Cyprian's (Queen Victoria’s Jubilee Home) Residential School
(Victoria Jubilee Home for Indian Children)[26] |
Brocket
(Peigan) |
AB | 1900 (new school built in 1926) | 1962 | AN | 25 | |
| Sturgeon Lake (Calais) Residential School
(St. François/Francis Xavier Boarding school)[27] |
Calais | AB | 1907 | 1961 | RC | 45 | |
| Fort Vermilion (St. Henri) Residential School[28] | Fort Vermilion | AB | 1903 | 1968 | RC | 21 | |
| Wabasca (St. John’s) Residential School[29] | Wabasca | AB | 1902 (new school built in 1949) | 1966 | AN | 11 | |
| Desmarais (St. Martin’s) Residential School | Desmarais-Wabasca | AB | 1901 | 1973 | RC | 16 | |
| St. Paul's (Blood) Residential School
(Church of England) |
Cardston
(Blood) |
AB | 1893 | 1975 | AN | 78 | |
| Lesser Slave Lake (St. Peter's) Residential School | Slave Lake | AB | 1895 | 1932 | AN | 2 | |
| Alberni Indian Residential School | Port Alberni | BC | 1900 (burned in 1917, rebuilt in 1920; burned in 1937, rebuilt in 1939) | 1973 | UC | 40 | Radar detected 17 potential graves in 2023[30] |
| Ahousaht Indian Residential School | Ahousaht | BC | 1901 | 1950 | PB | 8 | |
| Anahim Lake Dormitory (Ulkatcho) Residential School | Anahim Lake
(Ulkatcho) |
BC | 1968 | 1977 | RC | 0 | |
| Christie (Clayoquot/Kakawis) Residential School[31] | Meares Island (1900-1971)
Tofino (1971-1983) |
BC | 1900 | 1983 | RC | 46 | |
| Kamloops (St. Louis) Residential School
(Kamloops Industrial School) |
Kamloops | BC | 1890 | 1978 | RC | 82 | Radar detected 200 potential graves in 2021[32] |
| Kitimaat Indian Residential School
(Elizabeth Long Memorial School for Girls)[33] |
Kitimaat | BC | 1908 | 1941 | MD | 12 | |
| Kootenay (St. Eugene's/St. Mary's Residential School) | Cranbrook | BC | 1867 | 1984 | RC | 29 | Accidentally exhumed 1 grave in 2020; Radar detected 182 potential graves in 2021[34] |
| Kuper Island Indian Residential School | Penelakut Island | BC | 1890 | 1975 | RC | 171[35] | Radar detected 160 potential graves in 2021[36] |
| Lejac (Stuart Lake) Residential School | Fraser Lake | BC | 1917 (new building in 1922) | 1976 | RC | 45 | |
| Lower Post Indian Residential School | Lower Post | BC | 1951 | 1975 | RC | 3 | |
| Coqualeetza (Chilliwack Home) Residential School | Chilliwack | BC | 1889 | 1940 (later became the Coqualeetza Hospital and is now the Coqualeetza Cultural Education Centre) | MD | 42 | |
| Metlakatla Indian Residential School (Metlakatla Indian Girls' School) | Metlakatla | BC | 1891 | 1962 | OO | ||
| Port Simpson Residential School
(Crosby Home for Girls) |
Port Simpson | BC | 1892 | 1948 | MD | 3 | |
| Presbyterian Coqualeetza Indian Residential School | Chilliwack | BC | 1861 | 1940 | PB | ||
| Roman Catholic Coqualeetza Indian Residential School | Chilliwack | BC | 1890 | 1941 | RC | ||
| St. Augustine's Indian Residential School | Sechelt | BC | 1912 | 1975 | RC | 12 | Radar detected 40 potential graves in 2023[37] |
| St. Paul’s Indian Residential School | North Vancouver | BC | 1898 | 1959 | RC | 4 | |
| St. George's (Lytton) Indian Residential School | Lytton | BC | 1901 (new school built in 1928) | 1979 | AN | 78 | |
| St. Mary's Mission Indian Residential School | Mission (Pekw'Xe:yles) | BC | 1861 | 1984 | RC | 18 | |
| St. Michael's (Alert Bay) Indian Residential School | Alert Bay | BC | 1929 | 1975 | AN | 18 | |
| Williams Lake Indian Residential School (Williams Lake Industrial School) | Cariboo | BC | 1890 | 1981 | RC | 28 | Radar detected 93 potential graves in 2022[38] |
| Yale Indian Residential School | Yale | BC | 1900 | 1920 | AN | 5[39] | |
| Yuquot Indian Residential School | Yuquot | BC | 1901 | 1913 | RC | ||
| Assiniboia Indian Residential School (Assiniboia Hostel) | Winnipeg | MB | 1958 (September 2) | 1973 (June 30) | RC | 1 | |
| Birtle Indian Residential School | Birtle | MB | 1888 (December 3) | 1970 | PB | 47 | |
| Brandon Indian Residential School (Brandon Industrial School) | Brandon | MB | 1895 (May 23) | 1972 (June 30) | MD | 94 | Radar detected 104 potential graves in 2019[40] |
| Cross Lake Indian Residential School (Norway House Roman Catholic Indian Residential School) | Cross Lake | MB | 1915 (March 9) | 1969 (July 30) | RC | 57 | |
| Elkhorn Indian Residential School (Elkhorn Industrial School / Washakada Indian Residential School) | Elkhorn | MB | 1888 | 1919 (as CP Railway purchased land on which school was built) | AN | 76 | |
| Elkhorn Indian Residential School (Washakada Indian Residential School) | Elkhorn | MB | 1925 | 1949 | AN | 10 | |
| Fort Alexander Indian Residential School | Pine Falls | MB | 1905 | 1970 (June) | RC | 35 | Radar detected 190 anomalies in 2022[41] |
| Guy Hill Indian Residential School | The Pas and Clearwater Lake | MB | 1952 (Students were relocated from Sturgeon Landing, Saskatchewan to a temporary school in The Pas until a newly built school in Clearwater Lake in 1958) | 1979 (June 30) | RC | 2 | Radar detected 71 potential graves in 2022;[42] excavation of 14 found no evidence of human remains[43] |
| Lake St. Martin Indian Residential School | Fisher River | MB | 1874 (new school built in 1948) | 1963 | AN | Cadaver dogs detected multiple potential graves in 2024[44] | |
| MacKay Indian Residential School | The Pas | MB | 1915 | 1933 | AN | 10 | |
| MacKay Indian Residential School | Dauphin | MB | 1955 | 1989 | AN | 1 | |
| Norway House Methodist Indian Residential School | Norway House | MB | 1900 | 1967 (June 30) | MD | 23 | |
| Pine Creek Indian Residential School (Camperville Indian Residential School) | Camperville | MB | 1890 | 1969 (August 31) | RC | 50 | |
| Portage la Prairie Methodist Indian Residential School | Portage la Prairie | MB | 1891 | 1975 (June 30) | MD | ||
| Portage la Prairie Presbyterian Indian Residential | Portage la Prairie | MB | 1895 | 1950 | PB | 5 | |
| Sandy Bay Indian Residential School | Sandy Bay Reserve | MB | 1905 | 1970 (June 30) | RC | 22 | Radar detected 13 potential graves in 2022[45] |
| St. Boniface Industrial School | St. Boniface | MB | 1891 | 1909 | RC | 87[46] | |
| St. Paul's Industrial School (St. Rupert's Land Industrial School) | Selkirk | MB | 1886 | 1906 | AN | ||
| Waterhen Indian Residential School | Waterhen | MB | 1890 | 1900 | RC | ||
| Lockwood School* | Cartwright | NL | 1964 | OO | |||
| Makkovik Boarding School* | Makkovik | NL | 1960 | OO | |||
| Nain Boarding School* | Nain | NL | 1973 | OO | |||
| St. Anthony's Orphanage* | St. Anthony | NL | 1979 | OO | |||
| Yale School* | North West River | NL | 1980 | OO | |||
| Aklavik Anglican Indian Residential School (All Saints Indian Residential School) | Shingle Point | NWT | 1927 (moved to Aklavik in 1934 due to overcrowding | 1959 | AN | 59 | |
| Aklavik Catholic Indian Residential School (later Inuvik Indian Residential School) | Aklavik | NWT | 1925 (relocated to Inuvik in 1959; Stringer Hall was Anglican Residence and Grollier Hall the RC residence) | 1996 (June 1975 (Stringer Hall); June 30 1996 (Grollier Hall)) | RC | 20 | |
| Fort McPherson Indian Residential School; (Including residence, Fleming Hall); | Fort McPherson | NWT | 1898 | 1970 | OO (non-denominational) | 1 | |
| Fort Providence Indian Residential School (Providence Mission Indian Residential School) | Fort Providence | NWT | 1867 | 1953 | RC | 88 | Radar detected 150[47] to 298[48] potential graves in 2021 |
| Fort Resolution Indian Residential School | Fort Resolution | NWT | 1867 | 1957 | RC | 67 | Intentionally exhumed 7 graves in 2025[49] |
| Fort Simpson Indian Residential School (Fort Simpson Boarding School, including residences Bompas Hall, Lapointe Hall, St. Margaret's Hall) | Fort Simpson | NWT | 1920 | 1970 | RC | 3 | |
| Fort Smith Indian Residential School (Breynat Hall) | Fort Smith | NWT | 1957 | 1970 | RC | 1 | |
| Hay River Indian Residential School (St. Peter's Mission Indian Residential School) | Hay River | NWT | 1898 | 1949 | AN | 42 | |
| Akaitcho Hall (dormitory for Sir John Franklin High School) | Yellowknife | NWT | 1958 | 1994 | Federal/GNWT | 4 | |
| Shubenacadie Indian Residential School | Shubenacadie | NS | 1922 | 1968 | RC | 23 | |
| Chesterfield Inlet Indian Residential School (including residence: Turquetil) | Chesterfield Inlet | NU | 1929 | 1970 | RC | 3 | |
| Frobisher Bay Indian Residential School | Frobisher Bay | NU | 1965 | 1992 The building now houses the Nunatta Residence of the Nunavut Arctic College.(students were transferred to a new hostel, which operated until 1996.) | RC | 2 | |
| Kivalliq Hall | Rankin Inlet | NU | 1985 | 1997 | OO | 0 | |
| Albany Mission Indian Residential School (Fort Albany Residential School) | Fort Albany | ON | 1912 | 1963 | RC | 32 | |
| Alexandra Industrial School for Girls | Toronto | ON | 1897 | 1910[50] | OO | ||
| Alnwick Industrial School (in partnership with Mount Elgin Indian Residential School) | Alderville | ON | 1838 | 1966 | MD | ||
| Bishop Horden Memorial School (Moose Factory Indian Residential School; Moose Fort Indian Residential School) | Moose Factory | ON | 1907 | 1963 | AN | 57 | |
| Cecilia Jeffrey Indian Residential School (Shoal Lake) | Kenora | ON | 1900 | 1966 | PB | 50 | |
| Chapleau Indian Residential School (Saint John's Indian Residential School) | Chapleau | ON | 1907 | 1950 | AN | 56 | |
| Fort Frances Indian Residential School (St. Margaret's Indian Residential School) | Fort Frances | ON | 1902 | 1974 | RC | 3 | |
| McIntosh Indian Residential School (Kenora Indian Residential School) | Kenora | ON | 1925 | 1969 | RC | 45 | Radar detected 114 potential graves in 2025[51] |
| Mohawk Institute Residential School (Mohawk Manual Labour School; Mush Hole Indian Residential School) | Brantford | ON | 1828 | 1970 | AN | 47 | Accidentally exhumed 1 grave in 2020;[52] radar search in progress[53] |
| Mount Elgin Indian Residential School (in partnership with Alnwick) | Muncey Town | ON | 1848 | 1948 | MD | 16 | |
| Shingwauk Indian Residential School | Garden River | ON | 1873 | 1873 (burned down six days after opening) | AN | 0 | |
| Shingwauk Indian Residential School | Sault Ste. Marie | ON | 1873 (merged with Wawanosh to form a larger school in 1900) | 1971 (currently houses Algoma University) | AN | 87 | |
| Wawanosh School for Girls | Sault Ste Marie | ON | 1877 | 1900 (merged with Shingwauk) | AN | 0 | |
| Sioux Lookout Indian Residential School (Pelican Lake Day School) | Sioux Lookout | ON | 1911 | 1973 | AN | 11[54] | |
| Spanish Indian Residential Schools; St. Joseph Residential School 1916–1962 (girls school) still standing; St Charles Garnier College 1913–1958 (boys school)now demolished | Spanish | ON | 1883 | 1965 | RC | 114 | |
| St. Anne’s Indian Residential School | Fort Albany | ON | 1936 | 1964 | RC | 32 | |
| St. Joseph's Orphanage and Boarding School (for Indigenous and White Children) | Fort William | ON | 1870 | 1968 | RC | 10 | |
| St. Mary's Indian Residential School | Kenora | ON | 1894 | 1962 | RC | 46 | Radar detected 171 and cadaver dogs detected 22 potential graves in 2023[55] |
| Wikwemikong Indian Residential School (Wikwemikong Day School) | Manitowaning | ON | 1840 (day school); 1879 (residential school) | 1963 | RC | ||
| Armstrong Indian Residential School (Armstrong Residential School; Armstrong Home and School) | Armstrong | ON | 1880 | 1891 | RC | ||
| Amos Indian Residential School (St. Marc's Indian Residential School) | St. Marc-de-Figuery | QC | 1955 | 1973 | RC | 0 | |
| Federal Hostel at George River | Kangirsualujjuaq | QC | 1960 | 1960 | OO (Non-Denominational) | 0 | |
| Federal Hostel at Great Whale River | Kuujjuarapik (Poste-de-la-Baleine) | QC | 1960 | 1970 | OO (Non-Denominational) | 0 | |
| Federal Hostel at Payne Bay | Kangirsuk (Bellin) | QC | 1960 | 1960 | OO (Non-Denominational) | 0 | |
| Federal Hostel at Port Harrison | Inukjuak | QC | 1960 | 1971 | OO (Non-Denominational) | 0 | |
| Fort George Hostels | Chisasibi (Cree village municipality) | QC | 1975 | 1978 | OO (Non-Denominational) | 0 | |
| St. Philip's Indian Residential School | Chisasibi (Cree village municipality) | QC | 1932 (burned in 1943, rebuilt in 1944) | 1975 | AN | 28 | |
| Fort George (St. Joseph's Mission, Residence Couture, Sainte-Thérèse-de-l'Énfant-Jésus) | Chisasibi (Cree village municipality) | QC | 1936 | 1952 | RC | 21 | |
| La Tuque Indian Residential School | La Tuque | QC | 1963 | 1978 | AN | 2 | |
| Pointe Bleue Indian Residential School | Mashteuiatsh | QC | 1956 | 1965 | RC | 1 | |
| Sept-Iles Indian Residential School (Seven Islands, Notre Dame, Maliotenam) | Sept-Îles | QC | 1952 | 1967 | RC | 1 | |
| Battleford Industrial School | Battleford | SK | 1883 | 1914 | AN | 64 | Intentionally exhumed 72 graves in 1974[56] |
| Beauval Indian Residential School | Beauval | SK | 1895 | 1983 (became Meadow Lake Tribal Council's Beauval Indian Education Centre which closed in 1995) | RC | 60 | |
| Cowesses Indian Residential School (Marieval Indian Residential School) | Marieval | SK | 1899 | 1981 (First Nation Operated 1981-1997) | RC | 18 | Radar detected 751 potential graves in 2021[57] |
| Crowstand Indian Residential School | Kamsack | SK | 1888 | 1916 | PB | 34 | |
| St. Michael's Indian Residential School (Duck Lake Indian Residential School)[58] | Duck Lake | SK | 1894 | 1982, turned over to the Saskatoon District Tribal Council. Closed in 1996. | RC | 108 | |
| Emmanuel College | Prince Albert | SK | 1879 | 1923 | AN | 18 | |
| File Hills Indian Residential School (File Hills Colony School) | Okanese Reserve | SK | 1889 | 1949 | PB | 15 | |
| Gordon Indian Residential School | Punnichy | SK | 1889 (new school built in 1911, burned down in 1929) | 1996 | AN | 43 | Radar detected 14 potential graves in 2022[59] |
| Guy Hill Indian Residential School | Sturgeon Landing | SK | 1926 | 1952 (burned down September 4, 1952; students were relocated to temporary school in The Pas until a newly built school opened in Clearwater Lake in 1958) | RC | 2 | |
| Île-à-la-Crosse Indian Residential School | Île-à-la-Crosse | SK | 1878 | 1976 (the boarding school section) | RC | ||
| Lac La Ronge (All Saints) Mission Indian Residential School | La Ronge | SK | 1914 (new school built in 1920) | 1947 (amalgamated with St. Albans to become Prince Albert Indian Residential School after fire) | AN | 11 | Radar detected multiple potential graves in 2021[60] |
| Muscowequan Indian Residential School | Lestock | SK | 1932 | 1981 | RC | 35 | Accidentally exhumed 19 graves in 1992;[61] Radar detected 15 potential graves in 2018[62] |
| St. Albans Indian Residential School | Prince Albert | SK | 1894 | 1951 (amalgamated with All Saints to become Prince Albert Indian Residential School) | AN | 18 | |
| Prince Albert Indian Residential School | Prince Albert | SK | 1951 (merger of All Saints and St. Albans) | 1964 | AN | 0 | |
| Qu'Appelle Indian Residential School (Qu'Appelle Industrial School); Lebret Indian Residential School; (Added St. Paul's High School in 1951) | Lebret | SK | 1884 (burned down in 1904, 1932) | 1969 (Re-opened under the operations of the reserve in 1973 as White Calf Collegiate, but that closed in August 1998) | RC | 109 | Accidentally exhumed 1 grave and radar detected 2000 anomalies in 2022[63] |
| Regina Indian Residential School | Regina | SK | 1890 | 1910, demolished in 1948 | PB | 24 | Radar detected 38 potential graves in 2012[64] |
| Round Lake Indian Residential School | Whitewood | SK | 1886 | 1950 | MD | 5 | |
| St. Anthony's Indian Residential School (Onion Lake Catholic Indian Residential School) (Joseph Dion was pupil No. 7)[65] | Onion Lake | SK | 1891 | 1968 | RC | 0 | |
| St. Barnabas Indian Residential School (Onion Lake Indian Residential School) | Onion Lake | SK | 1893 (burned down in 1943) | 1951 | AN | 0 | |
| St. Phillips Indian Residential School (Keeseekoose Day School) | Kamsack | SK | 1899 | 1965 | RC | 6 | Radar detected 54 potential graves in 2022[66] |
| Thunderchild Indian Residential School (Delmas Indian Residential School) | Delmas | SK | 1901 | 1948 (burned down by students) | RC | 23 | Intentionally exhumed 1 body in 2021[67] |
| Aklavik Anglican Indian Residential School (All Saints Indian Residential School) | Shingle Point | NWT | 1927 | 1934 (moved to Aklavik due to overcrowding) | AN | 59 | |
| Baptist Indian Residential School (Yukon Indian Residential School) | Whitehorse | YT | 1900 | 1968 | BP | 1 | |
| Carcross Indian Residential School (Forty Mile Boarding School) | Fortymile | YT | 1891 | 1910 (moved to Carcross) | AN | 3 | |
| Carcross Indian Residential School (Chooutla Indian Residential School; Caribou Crossing Indian Residential School) | Carcross | YT | 1910 | 1969 | AN | 24 | Radar detected 15 potential graves in 2023[68] |
| St. Paul's Indian Residential School (St. Paul's Hall) | Dawson | YT | 1920 | 1943 | AN | 6 | |
| Yukon Hall (residences for local day school students) | Whitehorse | YT | 1956 | 1965 | AN | 0 | |
| Tranquille School for Mentally Handicapped Indians (Stsmemelt Village) | Kamloops | BC | 1972 | 1978 | OO (Non-Denominational) | ||
See also
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- Canadian genocide of Indigenous peoples
- Residential school denialism
- New Zealand Native schools
- Where the Spirit Lives - 1989 film about residential schools
Notes on terminology
- Indian has been used because of the historical nature of the article and the precision of the name. It was, and continues to be, used by government officials, Indigenous peoples and historians while referencing the school system. The use of the name also provides relevant context about the era in which the system was established, specifically one in which Indigenous peoples in Canada were homogeneously referred to as Indians rather than by language that distinguishes First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples. Use of Indian is limited throughout the article to proper nouns and references to government legislation.