Senhaja de Srair people

Early history

Al-Bakri provided the earliest historical record of the Senhaja in the Rif during the era of the Nekor Emirate, noting that they held the port of Balish (modern-day Cala Iris). This local mountain branch was distinctly known in the chronicles of Ibn Khaldon and Al-Qalqashandi as "Senhaja Miftah" (Arabic: صنهاجة مفتاح), to separate them from the nomadic Senhaja groups across the Maghreb. They carried massive political weight during the state's foundational period. Salih ibn Mansur, the emirate's founder, introduced Islam to the tribe and formed a strategic marriage alliance with them. His sons Al-Mu'tasim and Idris, who both succeeded him as rulers, were born to this Senhajan mother. Because of this early territorial footprint, the entire stretch of coastline from Mestassa in the west to the area around Badis in the east, including the Port of Balish and Senhaja Castle, remained tied to the Senhaja name for centuries.^[21][22]

The name of Senhaja Miftah reappeared in 1164 during the Almohad era, when Merzdagh Al-Senhaji, from the Senhaja Miftah tribe, launched a great revolt against the Almohads. He recruited many tribes from the north, including the Senhaja, Awraba, and Ghomara. Merzdagh even minted coins in his own name, bearing the inscription "Merzdagh the Stranger, God's Victory is Near" (Arabic: مرزدغ الغريب نصر الله قريب, romanized: Merzdagh al-Gharib, Nasru Allahi Qarib). He then launched attacks on the Banu Tawda, a strategic village and Almoravid-built fortress located near Fez in the Fechtala and Sless region. Merzdagh captured the fortress and killed many of its inhabitants, leaving the settlement in ruins, after which the site became locally known as Fes el Bali (Old Fes). This enraged the Almohad authorities, who dispatched an enormous army from Marrakesh, ultimately crushing the rebellion and resulting in his death.^[23][24][25]

Rif War

The Senhaja de Srair confederation contributed largely and immersed itself fully into the Rif War under the strategic local leadership of Mohammed Seddiq Akhamlish, head of the Zawiya Khamlishia, who was deeply respected all across the confederation.^[26] Utilizing the immense spiritual prestige and socio-political network of his Zawiya, Akhamlish worked actively in favor of the anti-colonial resistance movements that took place in the Rif, supporting both the early campaigns of Mohamed Ameziane and the succeeding war led by Abdelkrim El Khattabi. Under his guidance, the Senhaja de Srair tribes were successfully mobilized to rally to the Rif War, transforming the rugged massif into a critical military and logistical backbone for the Republic of the Rif.^[27][28][29]

After continuous colonial attacks led by Spain and France caused the fall of the Rif Republic, Abdelkrim sought refuge in Targuist at the Zawiya Khamlishia, where he surrendered in 1926. However, the Senhaja de Srair did not despair; instead, they continued their resistance under Slitan Akhamlish^[30][31], a Khamlishi marabout, until 1927. Slitan gathered a group of rebels in the mountains and launched an attack on a military outpost in Taghzut on 26 March 1927, where his fighters defeated a column of Regulares, leaving only one trooper alive.^{[32][33][34][35]}

The following day, Captain Ostáriz led a relief force of 12 officers and 292 men toward Taghzut. His command was ambushed near the town of Admam, where Ostáriz and his entire force were killed. This event led Colonel Pozas, Colonel Mola, and Lieutenant Colonel Solans [es] to mobilize a force of 7,000 to 14,000 men to search for Slitan. However, the operation faced a severe blizzard on 11 April, which halted all searching operations. The colonial columns suffered heavy casualties from the snow, wind, and cold, and were repeatedly attacked by the forces of Slitan and Muhend Aseddath, who were armed with traditional rifles of Taghzut, resulting in a large number of troops being buried in the snow. To avoid execution, Slitan managed to escape to the French zone. He returned later and was appointed as the Qaid of Targuist and Ait Mezduy in 1940.^{[33][34][35][36][28][12][11]}

Cannabis history

Cannabis cultivation is deeply rooted in local history,^[37][38] documented for several centuries and reinforced during the 20th century (with the hippie wave of the 1970s^[39]), before becoming a central element of the local economy. At the end of the 19th century, cannabis was cultivated on small plots for local and national markets, alongside other traditional crops. Consumer demand for recreational use was not excessive. Later, during the Protectorate period (1912–1956), Morocco saw the emergence of two cannabis markets: the monopoly market and the contraband market.^[40]

The Senhaja de Srair tibes of Ketama and Ait Seddat, were the only regions where this cultivation was legal, as the Sultan Moulay Hassan I authorized its continuation until the lands could be repurposed for other crops. Currently, cannabis (kif) cultivation remains predominant in the region, and the cannabis of Ketama is still renowned for its quality.^[41][42] Ketama's cannabis farmers were able to make the quality of their cannabis known through their mastery of the craft, the secrets of its therapeutic benefits they possessed, their appreciation of the flavors of cannabis, and, above all, the fact that they consumed their own cannabis.^[40]

This cultivation is believed to have been introduced by Sidi Heddi, the spiritual leader of the Heddawa, who was reportedly the first to bring back seeds from Asia in the 18th century. He settled among the Ketama people, who would become one of the cannabis suppliers for Sidi Heddi's sect (Ismaili Shia/Fatimid). This history partly explains the unique attachment of the Ketama people to this crop, linked to their relationship with the Fatimid dynasty, which is considered the origin of the Kutama.^[43][40]

Starting in the 19th century, cannabis smokers became increasingly numerous among the peasant population. And according to the Heddawa, the consumption of cannabis facilitates the recitation of Dhikr (remembrance of God) and the worship of God. Thus, they preferred Ketama's cannabis for its quality; they used to say: Khutna ketama nas fûhama, iqal'u alghaba, iḥartu nal-bûhala al-cannabis u-ttaba. 'Our Ketama brothers are intelligent people! They clear the forest to plant cannabis and tobacco for the fools'.^[40]

Religion

The Senhaja de Srair are predominantly Muslims. According to Abdulrahman Al-Tayyibi in his work^[44]. They follow the Sunni Sufi sect of the Tariqa Khamlishia and have historically been guided and ruled by the leadership of the Zawiya Khamlishia.^[45]

Nevertheless, the Senhaja de Srair are still attached to their ancestral beliefs, rites, and superstitions. Maraboutism, or the cult of saints, is still deeply rooted among them, alongside the veneration of caves, certain animals, and other secret forces of nature.^[8]

Handicraft

Leather bag of Taghzut.^[46]

Leather bag of Taghzut.

Taghzut, among the Senhaja de Srair tribes, was renowned throughout Morocco for its leatherwork, woodworking and silversmithing, as well as for the manufacture of damascened Moroccan rifles, firearms, and gun powder.^{[7][11][47][48]} These weapons were notably used during the Rif War to resist the Spanish colonial forces.^[49] The inhabitants also produced large quantities of long knives, similar to Kabyle daggers.^[7]

Through gunsmithing, leatherwork, and marquetry, the people of Taghzut were regarded as among the most highly skilled artisans in northern Morocco, and many traveled long distances to practice their crafts.^[50] Around 2,500 artisans from Taghzut were reportedly distributed across the country, establishing workshops in cities such as Fez, Rabat, Casablanca, Marrakesh, Tangier, Tetouan and Nador.^[46]

• Leatherwork of Taghzut on YouTube.
• Marquetry of Taghzut on YouTube.

Architecture

Traditional houses of Taghzut

Traditional houses of Ait Seddat

Traditional houses of Ait Seddat

The traditional houses of the Senhaja de Srair are usually clustered in hamlets scattered across the mountainous landscape. They are built on a rectangular base made of mud brick or stone, with young cedar trunks or riparian wood used to support the structure, and roofs traditionally thatched with rye straw and cork. These houses are often decorated with symbolic elements, especially on the ridgepoles placed between the main timbers, which are associated with hospitality, protection, and good fortune.^[51][11]

Two-story houses are particularly common in the Senhaja region, more so than in much of northern Morocco. Some dwellings and religious structures also incorporate Moorish arches around their doorways and windows, which is exclusive to the Senhaja de Srair. Due to the abundance of forests in the region, wood has long been the principal building material, while stone walls are commonly covered with plaster.^[51][11]

However, with the arrival of modernization and the socio-economic changes that have transformed the Senhaja de Srair region, traditional houses have increasingly been replaced by concrete and cement buildings with flat roofs. Despite this shift, the older architectural style still survives in some areas and remains in use, particularly among poorer households in Senhaja de Srair.^[52]