Trans-Karakoram Tract

Historically the people of Hunza cultivated and grazed areas to the north of the Karakoram, and the Mir of Hunza claimed those areas as part of Hunza's territories. Those areas included the Raskam Valley, north of the Shaksgam Valley.^[11]

In 1889 the first expedition to the Shaksgam Valley by a European was undertaken by Francis Younghusband (who referred to the Shaksgam as the Oprang).^[12]

In March 1899 the British proposed, in a formal Note from Sir Claude MacDonald to China, a new boundary between China and British India. The Note proposed that China should relinquish its claims to suzerainty over Hunza, and in return Hunza should relinquish its claims to most of the Taghdumbash and Raskam districts.^[13] It further outlined a border broadly following the main Karakoram crest, dividing the watersheds of the Indus and Tarim rivers, with a deviation to pass through a Hunza post at Darwaza near the Shimshal Pass.^[13] The Chinese did not respond to the Note and the Indian government never revisited the boundary in the same form again.^[14] The MacDonald Line was modified in 1905 to include in India a small area east of the Shimshal Pass, to put the border on a stretch of the Shaksgam River.^[15]

At the same time, in view of "The Great Game", Britain was concerned at the danger of Russian expansion as Qing dynasty China weakened and so adopted a policy of claiming a border north of the Shaksgam River. This followed a line proposed by Sir John Ardagh in a Memorandum of 1897.^[16] That border included the Mir of Hunza's claim over the Raskam Valley. However, British administration never extended north of the Karakoram watershed.^[17]

From 1899 until the independence of India and creation of Pakistan in 1947, the representation of the border on maps varied. In 1926 Kenneth Mason explored and surveyed the Shaksgam Valley.^[18] In 1927 the Government of British India abandoned any claim to the area north of the MacDonald Line, but the decision did not find its way on to British maps.^[19] By 1959, however, Chinese maps were published showing large areas west and south of the MacDonald line in China. That year, the Government of Pakistan announced its willingness to consult on the boundary question.^[20]

Since 1947, India has claimed sovereignty over the entire area of the pre-1947 independent state of Jammu and Kashmir and maintains that Pakistan and China do not share a common border.^{[citation needed]}

In 1954 the Times Atlas predominantly depicted the Cis-Kuen Lun Tract (the region between the Karakoram and Kuen Lun mountains) as a part of Kashmir under the caption "Undefined Frontier area".^[21] The northern border published by the 1954 Times Atlas more or less followed the watershed of the Kuen Lun range from the Taghdumbash Pamir to the Yangi Dawan pass north of Kulanaldi, but east of the Yangi Dawan Pass, the border deviated from the watershed of the Kuen Lun range on the edge of the highlands of Kashmir.^{[citation needed]}

In 1959, the Pakistani government became concerned over Chinese maps that showed areas the Pakistanis considered their own as part of China. In 1961, Ayub Khan sent a formal note to China; there was no reply. It is thought that the Chinese might not have been motivated to negotiate with Pakistan because of Pakistan's relations with India.^{[citation needed]}

In 1962 the Government of Pakistan published an official map depicting the alignment of the northern border of Kashmir, which depicted much of the Cis-Kuen Lun Tract as part of Kashmir.^{[citation needed]} The alignment published by the Government of Pakistan was mostly similar to the portrayal of the northern Border of Kashmir depicted in the 1954 Times Atlas, though in places, the Government of Pakistan's position deviated from the 1954 Times Atlas, and included areas as part of Kashmir which were to the north of the border of Kashmir shown in the Times Atlas.^{[citation needed]} Thus the official position of the Government of Pakistan prior to the 1963 Sino-Pakistan Agreement was that the northern border of Pakistan was on the Kuen Lun range, and the territory ceded by the Government of Pakistan was not just restricted to the Shaksgam Valley but extended to the Kuen Lun range.^{[citation needed]} For an idea of the extent of the Trans-Karakoram Tract or the Cis-Kuen Lun Tract, a view the map (C) from the Joe Schwartzberg's Historical Atlas of South Asia at DSAL in Chicago with the caption, "The boundary of Kashmir with China as portrayed and proposed by Britain prior to 1947"^[22] would show that the geographical and territorial extent of the Trans-Karakoram Tract or the Cis-Kuen Lun Tract is more or less the territory enclosed between the northernmost line and the innermost lines.^{[citation needed]}

After Pakistan voted to grant China a seat in the United Nations, the Chinese withdrew the disputed maps in January 1962, agreeing to enter border talks in March. Negotiations between the nations officially began on October 13, 1962, and resulted in the Sino-Pakistan Agreement signed on 2 March 1963 by foreign ministers Chen Yi of China and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan.^[8] The resulting Sino-Pak border largely followed the MacDonald Line, with the exception of Shimshal area, where China ceded areas Pakistan claimed on the basis of grazing rights of people of Hunza.^[6]

The Indian government believes that the agreement resulted in the surrendering of a significant area to China. As claimed by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru in a parliamentary session, "According to the survey of Pakistan maps, even those published in 1962, about 11,000 square miles [28,000 km²] of Sinkiang territory formed part of Kashmir. If one goes by these maps, Pakistan has obviously surrendered over 12,810.87 square miles [33,180.0 km²] of territory".^[23] However, the Indian political analyst and historian A. G. Noorani claims that Shaksgam Valley never formed part of Kashmir, and that the northern and eastern boundaries of Kashmir remained undefined.^[24] The historian Alastair Lamb, noting the Indian stance in his analysis of the agreement, states that the Indian government has repeatedly used the agreement as to claim "existence of a Pakistan-China “axis” directed towards the humiliation of India".^[25] He further adds that the western frontiers along Karakoram had been clearly established by British note to China in 1899 and its subsequent modification in 1905 had been admitted by Chinese authorities in Xinjiang during 1930s, the same border which was more or less followed during the 1963 demarcation.^[25] According to Lamb:^[25]

There were, in fact, only three problems outstanding. First; the altered status of Hunza, once regarded by China as a tributary state, had to be accepted, even if tacitly, by Beijing. Second: the termination of old Hunza claims to territory and rights north of the Karakoram, which the British had de facto abandoned in 1936, would have to be confirmed, again tacitly if need be. Finally: the precise alignment of the Hunza-Sinkiang border, particularly in the region of the Khunjerab and Shimshal Passes, would have to be delimited. When all this had been agreed, it only remained the reconcile the maps on the two sides (based on different surveys of varying, and sometimes dubious, quality) by joint demarcation on the ground; and the job would be done. A task which the British had started with their Note to China of 1899 would have at last been completed.

Lamb claims that contrary to Indian claims, China ceded some 52 km² (20 sq mi) of area to Pakistan between Shimshal Pass and Uprang Jilga River which had been placed within Chinese territory under 1905 border.^[6] The political scientist Taylor Fravel notes that China withdrew from 750 sq mi (1,942 km²) of territory, including Oprang Valley, Prang and Bund Darwaza Valley, Kharachanai salt mines and the town of Sokh Bolaq. Pakistan also kept six out of seven disputed passes under its possession.^[26] Sumit Ganguly states that Pakistan gained 750 sq mi (1,942 km²) in Shimshal Valley in return of ceding its claim over 1,050 sq mi (2,730 km²) in Shaksgam.^[27] According to Neville Maxwell, Pakistan gave up only map claims while China had to withdraw from the territory it administered.^[28]

• Yinsugaiti Glacier
• Sarpo Laggo Glacier
• Siachen Glacier
• Sino-Indian conflict
• List of disputed territories of China
• List of disputed territories of India
• List of disputed territories of Pakistan