Umayyad invasions of Egypt (657–658)
Series of military incursions against the governorship of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr
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The Umayyad invasions of Egypt (657–658) were a series of military expeditions during the First Fitna, initiated by the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya I, against the administration of the fourth Rashidun caliph, Ali. Following the Assassination of Uthman, Egypt emerged as a pivotal battleground; the province was initially held by Alid-aligned governors, but faced mounting opposition from local factions demanding retribution for the late caliph.
changes Egypt incorporated into the Umayyad domain
| Umayyad invasions of Egypt (657–658) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of First Fitna | |||||||||
Route of Amr ibn al-As during the Egyptian campaign Region under the control of Caliph Ali
Region under the control of Mu'awiya I
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Rashidun Caliphate | Umayyad Syria | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
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Ali ibn Abi Talib Malik al-Ashtar X Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr  Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa † Abd al-Rahman ibn Udays al-Balawi Kinana ibn Bishr al-Tujibi † Al-Harith ibn Jumhan † Ibn Mudahim al-Kalbi † |
Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan Amr ibn al-As Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj Busr ibn Abi Artat Abu al-A'war Maslama ibn Mukhallad Uqba ibn Amir Kharija ibn Hudhafa Yazid ibn al-Harith | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| 2,500+ | 6,000+ | ||||||||
In 658, Mu'awiya dispatched a Syrian force commanded by Amr ibn al-As to annex the province. After the failure of Alid loyalist attempts to hold the territory and the death of Ali's commander Malik al-Ashtar, the loyalist defenses collapsed at the Battle of al-Musanna. The subsequent Umayyad victory resulted in the execution of the Alid governor Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the reinstatement of Amr as governor, and the incorporation of Egypt into the Umayyad domain. This annexation served as a decisive turning point in the conflict, crippling the Alid caliphate by depriving it of vital tax revenues and isolating its power base in Iraq.
Background
The political crisis in Egypt was a direct extension of the First Fitna. Following the assassination of Caliph Uthman in 656, Egypt became a critical battleground for legitimacy. The province was divided between the partisans of Ali and a powerful faction of Uthmaniyya (the partisans of Uthman) based in Kharbita who demanded retribution for the late caliph's blood.[1]
Initially the province was seized for the Alid cause by Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa and Abd al-Rahman ibn Udays.[2] Following the appointment of Qays ibn Sa'd as governor, both leaders attempted to join Ali's forces in Medina but were intercepted by Mu'awiya I near Arish.[3][4]
The two men were imprisoned together at Jabal al-Jalil but met separate fates. Ibn Udays was executed in 657 while Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa was killed by a Yemenite during a later escape attempt.[4] Following these removals Qays ibn Sa'd adopted a policy of de-escalation by allowing the Uthmanid opposition to remain neutral in exchange for peace.[5]
Fragmentation and Instability
The stability established by Qays ended when he was recalled and replaced by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr in 657. This appointment proved immediately unpopular among supporters of Uthman, leading to increased sectarian tension and a perceived lack of popular support for Ali's rule in the region.[6] Unlike his predecessor, Muhammad abandoned the policy of neutrality and issued an ultimatum to the rebels to either pledge allegiance to Ali or depart from Egypt.[7] This demand triggered an active revolt under Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj. Muhammad attempted to suppress the uprising by dispatching an offensive under Al-Harith ibn Jumhan al-Ju'fi, who was killed in the engagement. A second expedition led by Ibn Mudahim al-Kalbi similarly failed to defeat the Uthmanids, leaving the governor's limited forces overstretched.[5] Recognizing the impending collapse of Alid authority, Ali dispatched Malik al-Ashtar from Nisibis to take supreme command of Egypt. However, Al-Ashtar was poisoned at Qulzum, an act widely attributed to the instigation of Mu'awiya.[1] The death of Al-Ashtar was celebrated in Damascus and left Muhammad isolated at his post.[7]
Conquest and Annexation
In mid-658, Mu'awiya I ordered a full-scale military intervention to support the local Uthmanids and annex the province. He dispatched a Syrian army of approximately 6,000 troops under the command of Amr ibn al-As, who had also been its first governor.[8] Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, whose authority had been weakened by failed expeditions against the rebels at Kharbita, was able to muster only 2,500 loyalist troops to defend the governorship.[9]
The two forces met at the Battle of al-Musanna, located between Heliopolis and Fustat.[10] Despite a spirited defense by the Alid commander Kinana ibn Bishr, the numerically superior Syrian and Uthmanid coalition swiftly overwhelmed the Egyptian loyalists. Kinana was killed in the heat of the battle, leading to the total collapse of Muhammad's lines.[9] Following the defeat, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr attempted to flee but was captured and executed by the forces of Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj.[9]
The Umayyad victory resulted in the immediate reinstatement of Amr ibn al-As as governor of the province, bringing Egypt under the control of the Damascus-based coalition. This annexation marked a decisive turning point in the First Fitna, depriving Ali of the region's vast agricultural wealth and tax revenue while securing Mu'awiya's southern flank.[11]