User:1965Tim/Sandbox2

Need for new structures

The city of Cleveland and Cuyahoga County have long had parallel law enforcement agencies and civil and criminal courts. By the mid-1960s, these organizations were housed in several facilities, which included:

• 1912 - Cuyahoga County Courthouse:^[1] This building housed the Cuyahoga County civil courts and the Cleveland civil courts.
• 1925 - Cleveland Police Headquarters:^[2] This building housed the Cleveland Division of Police and the Cleveland city jail.
• 1931 - Cuyahoga County Criminal Courts Building:^[3] This building housed the Cuyahoga County criminal courts and the Cleveland criminal courts.
• 1933 - Cuyahoga County Jail:^[4][5] This building housed the Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Department and the Cuyahoga County jail.

By 1965, all of these structures were aging and outdated. Moreover, Cuyahoga County had grown by roughly 450,000 people since the early 1930s, and greatly expanded facilities were needed. Yet, between 1945 and 1965, Cuyahoga County and Cleveland voters had rejected 16 different ballot proposals to build new courthouses and jails.^[6]

In December 1965, Cleveland Mayor Ralph S. Locher appointed a "Little Hoover Commission" to study the management, revenues, and physical plant needs of the city government. This body (named after the Hoover Commission of 1947 that studied management issues in the federal government),^[7] issued its report on the judiciary in December 1966, and recommended that the city and county jointly construct a courthouse to improve judicial and law enforcement coordination and achieve an economy of scale in administration.^[8] Days later, in a controversial report on the management of the Cleveland Police, the Little Hoover Commission recommended abolishing the Cleveland City Jail, relying on the county for prison facilities, and constructing a new headquarters for the police department.^[9] By March 1967, both the city and county had established planning bodies to look into jail and courthouse needs and design, and The Plain Dealer newspaper editorialized in favor of a combined jail-courthouse facility.^[10]

The need for a new jail and courthouse was underlined in 1967. In June, Cuyahoga County Sheriff James J. McGettrick warned prison riots would occur at the county jail unless action was taken immediately to reduce inmate overcrowding,^[11] and the lack of courtroom space was creating a severe backlog in case processing. In October, Court of Common Pleas Presiding Judge John V. Corrigan called for construction of a new 10-story courthouse.^[12] The three-member Cuyahoga County Commission agreed in November to hire an architect to review the city and county planning bodies' work and come up with a proposal.^[13] The Cuyahoga County Commissioners began work in April 1968 on preliminary architectural plans for a structure that would house the county courts, county, jail, and county sheriff's department.^[14] Court of Common Pleas judges voted overwhelmingly in May 1968 to back any project the commissioners agreed to, and established a four-member panel to coordinate with the commissioners' planning efforts.^[15]

Failure of the 1968 bond measure

Planning for the new facilities proceeded swiftly in the summer and fall of 1968. On July 18, the county commissioners proposed building a $15 million ($138,900,000 in 2025 dollars) new jail capable of holding 1,200 prisoners, and a $13 million ($120,400,000 in 2025 dollars) courthouse building. Although no site had been identified, the commissioners said that if these were built on county-owned land at Ontario Street and W. St. Clair Avenue, the county would also be able to construct an underground parking garage beneath either the new buildings or Fort Huntington Park (north of the county-owned site, at W. Lakeside Avenue and W. 3rd Street).^[16]

Funding for the new "justice center" appeared to receive a boost when Congress enacted the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act on June 19, 1968. Designed to both expand local law enforcement and assist with reforms to make it more effective, the law also authorized the expenditure of up to $7.5 million ($69,400,000 in 2025 dollars) for the construction of modern law enforcement facilities such as courthouses, jails, and police offices and laboratories. To assist the city of Cleveland in analyzing its law enforcement and judicial organizations so that the city could apply for funds under the act, The Cleveland Foundation established the Administration of Justice Advisory Committee (AJAC) in October 1968. AJAC's lone staff person, Bruce Newman, and its chairman, financial investment manager Thomas H. Roulston II, understood that the Cleveland police and the city and county courts were deeply entrenched and conservative institutions which had strongly resisted change for more than 50 years. Rather than push for change from outside, AJAC engaged in a quiet and informal "listening campaign" to identify the needs of law enforcement and the judiciary.^[17] Unfortunately, AJAC discovered there was little support in any agency for law enforcement or judicial change.^[18]

The lack of a strong push for a new justice center by court and law bureaucracies doomed the proposal. In November 1968, Cuyahoga County voters rejected a ballot proposal to fund construction of a new $38.5 million ($356,400,000 in 2025 dollars) Cuyahoga County courthouse and jail. More than 55 percent of voters had to approval each proposal. The county proposal failed, 46.2 to 53.8, and the city proposal failed 44.8 to 55.2.^[5]

1969 planning efforts

A second major planning effort for a proposed justice center began in the summer of 1969. These efforts were sponsored by three major groups.

The first of these groups was the Greater Cleveland Criminal Justice Coordinating Council. On July 23, 1969, Cleveland Mayor Carl Stokes^[a] and the Cuyahoga County Commissioners announced the formation of the Greater Cleveland Criminal Justice Coordinating Council (CJCC). Led by Newman and staffed by AJAC, the body was tasked with drafting a Criminal Justice Plan for Cuyahoga County.^[21][22] One of the CJCC's first acts was to establish a criminal justice facilities committee,^[6] which was chaired by H. Chapman Rose,^[23] president of the Cleveland Bar Association and a former Under Secretary of the Treasury.^[24] The facilities committee persuaded the city and the county to contribute $25,000 ($200,000 in 2025 dollars) each to fund a study of space needs.^[6] To help secure the support of Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Department, the CJCC gave Sheriff Ralph E. Kreiger^[b] a $5,300 ($46,531 in 2025 dollars) grant to personally conduct on-site studies of highly regarded county sheriff operations in Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, and Minneapolis. Kreiger returned from his fact-finding tour convinced he needed a new headquarters and jail.^[26] In the fall and early winter of 1969, the CJCC received a total of $288,000 ($2,500,000 in 2025 dollars) in operations grants from the Ford Foundation and the Greater Cleveland Associated Foundation (GCAF). The CJCC now gave its facilities committee an additional $104,000 ($900,000 in 2025 dollars) to plan the justice center.^[27]

The second of these groups was the Justice Center Task Force Committee. Planning efforts received another boost when the Greater Cleveland Growth Association, a coalition of businessmen seeking to improve economic and living conditions in the Greater Cleveland area, established the Justice Center Task Force Committee in August 1969 to assist with jail planning.^[28] Myrl E. Alexander, Director of the Federal Bureau of Prisons and a noted and successful advocate of federal penal reform,^[29] was brought in to advise on jail design. The group said it would have a final design ready by fall 1970.^[28]

The third of these groups was the Cleveland Board of Control. In March 1970, the Board of Control^[c] hired two architectural firms—Madison, Madison & Madison and Flynn, Dalton, Van Dijk & Partners—to design a new city police headquarters and a new city jail.^[31][d]

In early May 1970, the CJCC held a conference with 45 of Greater Cleveland's top law enforcement and judicial officials to finalize planning for the Justice Center.^[33] By this time, county planning and architectural studies for the combined jails/sheriff's headquarters and for the courts building was nearly complete. Attendees learned that the Columbus-based architectural firm Prindle, Patrick and Associates had overseeing the county's architectural planning.^[34][e] Hiring an architect months before the public approved funding for the project was later termed "highly unusual at best" by Judge Corrigan.^[38][f] At the end of the conference, the participants approved the justice center plan proposed by the CJCC's facilities consultant, Space Utilization Analysts, Inc. This proposal called for a 10-story county courthouse tower, a 9-story city police headquarters, and an 8-story structure to house the city jail, county jail, and county sheriff.^[34] A county-owned building at the site would be renovated and continue to be utilized as a cost-saving measure. All the buildings would be connected.^[34] The primary outstanding issue facing the conference was where the new justice center would be built. Wilbur Smith & Associates, a planning firm based in Columbia, South Carolina, had been hired by the county some months earlier to identify and critique various sites, but the company was still working on its report.^[34] Representatives from suburban police departments favored a site on E. 21st Street, while the other participants (including the Cleveland Police) endorsed the county's previously-announced preferred site.^[33][g]

A report on the conference was released to the public on May 12, 1970. Cleveland Police Chief Lewis W. Coffey, however, immediately denounced the county-preferred site as inappropriate.^[h] Coffey said the Cleveland police preferred to raze their existing headquarters on Payne Avenue and build a new headquarters and jail on the same site. Coffey justified his position by claiming the county-preferred site would be too distant from the 3rd and 5th precinct buildings.^[34] Despite Coffey's announcement, the county asked Prindle, Patrick to go ahead with more detailed architectural drawings and cost estimates for the proposed justice center.^[44] To try to resolve the dispute with Coffey, the city and county agreed to conduct yet another site study. They won a $150,000 ($1,200,000 in 2025 dollars) federal grant fund the study, and both sides provided another $50,000 ($400,000 in 2025 dollars) each.^[45] The new site study, released on July 7, recommended the 5-acre (20,000 m²) county-preferred site. The study also recommended that a parking garage be built on or under Fort Huntington Park.^[46]

Campaign for a Justice Center bond issue

The cost of the project was initially estimated July 7 to be $50 million ($414,500,000 in 2025 dollars).^[46] The public was warned that this was an early cost estimate, and that more complete architectural planning was needed. To pay for these costs, the CJCC applied for and won a planning grant issued under the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act.^[33]

It quickly became apparent that the true cost of the Justice Center was going to be much higher than $50 million. According to historian Diana Tittle, members of the CJCC worried that voters would reject the project if it was too expensive, and decided to arbitrarily set the price tag at $61 million ($505,700,000 in 2025).^[33] Privately, almost no one involved in the Justice Center planning effort believed that $61 million would even cover the cost of the buildings, but it was the consensus that this was the highest politically acceptable cost figure.^[33] Costs for land acquisition, demolition and site preparation,^[33] furniture,^[47] and expanded staffing for the much larger facility were purposefully excluded from the estimate.^[48]

On July 13, 1970, the Cuyahoga County Commissioners announced that the county's portion of the Justice Center would cost $61.5 million ($509,900,000 in 2025). The city's cost (which only included the seven-story^[49] police headquarters) was $10 million ($82,900,000 in 2025).^[50] Not budgeted for was the municipal court building, although its cost was estimated by the county.^[51] The county said it would ask voters to approve a bond issue to cover its expenses, while the the city of Cleveland issue "councilmanic bonds".^[i] Site preparation and construction costs consumed 80 percent of the county's cost estimate:^[50]

• Land acquisition and clearance — $3,173,000 ($26,300,000 in 2025);
• Court of Common Pleas tower, with 22 floors,^[52] 26 courtrooms, and 34 judicial chambers — $22,115,000 ($183,300,000 in 2025);
• Combined Cuyahoga County/Cleveland City Jail, with 13 floors,^[53] cells for 2,000 prisoners, and office space for the county sheriff's headquarters — $22,090,000 ($183,100,000 in 2025);
• Parking garage for 300 vehicles — $1,926,000 ($16,000,000 in 2025);
• Cleveland Muncipal Court tower, with 18 floors, 13 courtrooms, and three hearing rooms^[52] — $9,309,000 ($77,200,000 in 2025).

The county commissioners said the proposal fell short of the goal of constructing facilities large enough to meet city and county needs through the year 1995, but that compromises on cost forced them to propose a smaller complex.^[50]

To help win public support for the Justice Center, a large public relations campaign was undertaken to convince the public to support the bond issue. The CJCC helped fund and manage this campaign. It ran a 60-second ad on local television which depicted a citizen emerging from Terminal Tower and being mugged while a menacing voice advised voters: "Use your head before someone else does!"^[33] Members of the Cleveland Bar Association donated $10 each ($83 in 2025) to fund a newspaper advertising campaign.^[54]

The bond issue for the Justice Center was approved in the general election held on November 3, 1970,^[55] 52.2 to 47.8 percent (257,844 to 235,788 out of 493,632 votes cast).^[56] The Justice Center ballot proposal drew more votes on election day than any other ballot issue except for the proposal for a "homestead" property exemption for the elderly, with 84.9 percent of all voters casting a vote on the issue.^[57]

Rising costs

Problems with land acquisition and demolition plagued the first two years of Justice Center work. The immediate issue was land: 19 landowners had been identified at the site, and the county had established April 1972 for the end of demolition and site preparation (a date just 15 short months away).^[70] In November 1970, the county had budgeted $3.6 million ($29,800,000 in 2025) for land acquisition, demolition, and utilities preparation.^[59] But by October 1971, those costs stood at $8 million ($61,600,000 in 2025),^[52] and a month later had skyrocketed to $11 million ($87,400,000 in 2025) for land acquisition alone. Moreover, county commissioners admitted that they had failed to budget for the cost of acquiring land for the police headquarters.^[71]

Despite the tripling of costs, by January 25, 1972, the city had purchased 18 of the 21 needed properties, for a land acquisition cost of $7,982,300 ($61,400,000 in 2025). The county was still negotiating with Cleveland State University over the price of the Cleveland–Marshall College of Law building, which the county estimated would cost $900,000. ($6,900,000 in 2025). Nearly all the properties had been acquired by negotiation; eminent domain in a probate court was resorted to only where landowners wanted protection from potential future claims.^[51]

On May 4, 1972, the county commissioners finally awarded initial demolition contracts worth $606,000 ($4,700,000 in 2025).^[72]

Delay in purchasing the Cleveland–Marshall College of Law building

The purchase of the law school building took much longer than anticipated. County officials discovered that the school could not transfer state-owned property to the county without approval from the Ohio Legislature. That legislation (SB 104) passed the Ohio General Assembly and became effective December 23, 1971. The bill proved defective, and in January 1972 a new bill (SB 443) was introduced to remedy the problem.^[73][n]

The county issued its call for bids for razing the site in early March 1972. The estimated cost of demolition was $2,032,300 ($15,600,000 in 2025),^[75] of which $400,000 ($3,100,000 in 2025) was paid for with a federal grant.^[76] . However, this did not include the cost of razing the Swift Building or the Lawyers Building, two structures which occupied that portion of the site set aside for construction of the police headquarters and the municipal court building.^[75] When the Cleveland Division of Police balked at building a new police headquarters, the county did not know what to do with the two structures. For a time, it considered retaining the Swift Building.^[76]

By mid-March 1972, the county and Cleveland–Marshall College of Law were still negotiating over the price of the law school building.^[77] Terms were reached on March 16,^[78] but SB 443 was stuck in Ohio Senate Rules Committee—preventing the agreement from being implemented.^[79] The law school agreed to allow the county to demolish its building if the county agreed to build a new structure should SB 443 fail to pass the legislature. Demolition contracts worth a combined $460,992 ($3,500,000 in 2025) were awarded on March 27 to Boyas Excavating, B&B Wrecking, and Harris Wrecking. Demolition was scheduled to last five months.^[80]

Demolition work finally began on April 10, 1972,^[53] with the demolition of the two-story Slatmyer Building.^[81] The county won some relief from its spiralling costs when the federal government awarded it $649,760 ($5,000,000 in 2025) for site clearance, with the possibility of another $600,000 ($4,600,000 in 2025) coming later.^[72] The county finally reached a deal to buy the Cleveland-Marshall School of Law building for $925,000 ($7,100,000 in 2025) on May 11.^[82] In late May, the Ohio state legislature finally passed SB 443.^[74]

Loss of the Watson Building

A major element of the demolition process involved moving the six-story Watson Building (located at 1279 W. 3rd Street). Although the structure was intended for eventual demolition, Cuyahoga County officials wanted to use it as temporary courtroom space for the Court of Common Pleas. The Watson Building interfered with excavation of the jail/sheriff structure's foundations, so county officials decided to move the structure about 25 feet (7.6 m) to the south.^[83]

As it was being moved, the Watson Building suffered a partial collapse at about 8:30 PM on December 21, 1972.^[84] The rear wall of the building detached, taking with it about 15 percent of the total structure. All HVAC and most electrical equaipment were lost. The county immediately hired two engineering firms at a cost of $5,000 ($38,484 in 2025 dollars) to determine if the structure could be saved.^[85]

Days after the collapse, county officials accused Mural & Son, Inc. of failing to properly shore up the building prior to its move. The structural moving firm denied any liability.^[86] The county hired two engineers in late January 1973 at a cost of $5,000 ($36,263 in 2025 dollars) to look into collapse.^[87]

On December 26, it was determined that the building could not be saved.^[88] Excavation work on the Justice Center foundation continued, but was halted on January 1, 1973, after new cracks appeared in the walls of the Watson Building and masonry began falling from it.^[89] On January 3, Inner City Wrecking Co. won a $38,000 ($300,000 in 2025 dollars) contract to begin immediate demolition of the Watson Building.^[90]

In late December 1974, Cuyahoga County sued Mural & Sons over the Watson Building collapse. The county claimed Mural & Sons did not get an architect's approval for the move and did not do enough to structurally support the building, and sought $500,000 ($3,264,170 in 2025 dollars) in damages. Mural & Sons responded that vibrations from Justice Center construction caused the collapse.^[91]

Cleveland municipal courts building dispute

Cleveland Mayor Ralph Perk, a Republican who was elected mayor on November 2, 1971, after Mayor Stokes declined to seek reelection,^[92][o] had campaigned on a platform that advocated construction of the Justice Center.^[94] Throughout November and December 1971, city planners worked on plans for a new municipal courthouse anticipated to cost $13 million ($100,100,000 in 2025).^[63]

On January 3, 1972, Mayor Perk announced he was considering withdrawing from the Justice Center project, arguing the cost would be better spent on other projects. Perk then ordered a review of the Madison-Madison International architectural contract, fulfilling a campaign promise he had made.^[95]

By early March, Perk's threat had drawn strong criticism from Cleveland Department of Law Director Richard R. Hollington, Jr.; Perk's economic development aide, Howard B. Klein;^[96] and Municipal Court Chief Justice Brennan (who even argued that the city had incurred a legal obligation to build).^[97] Perk responded on March 9 by accusing municipal court judges of wanting over-lavish courtrooms and chambers, and signalled his desire to reduce the size of the 18-story municipal court building.^[98] Two weeks later, city planning director Krumholz declared that construction of a municipal court building was not on the city's list of high-priority construction projects.^[99]

The county replied to Perk's threat on March 30, saying it would withhold $750,000 ($5,800,000 in 2025 dollars) for a regional transit study until Perk agreed to participate in the Justice Center project.^[100] The threat appeared to work, as Perk on April 4 called for a budget meeting of city department heads as well as a meeting with county commissioners and officials to discuss the Justice Center.^[101]

At the meeting, Perk agreed to build the municipal court building, but said he would delay for up to two years any decision on building a new police headquarters. In exchange, the Cuyahoga County Commissioners agreed to pay $14 million ($107,800,000 in 2025) of the $15.5 million ($119,300,000 in 2025) cost of the Clark Avenue Bridge and Kinsman Road Bridge rehabilitation projects. To accommodate the delayed decision on the police structure, the county agreed to raze the existing buildings on the police building site and not erect any new building there. Perk also won the establishment of a six-member oversight committee to guide final planning for the Justice Center and to choose a construction manager.^[67]

Despite Perk's desire to downsize the municipal court building, Prindle, Patrick suggested on April 5, 1972, that the building actually be increased in size to 22 stories.^[53]

By June 1972, the city had committed to spending $12 million ($92,400,000 in 2025 dollars) on the municipal courthouse.^[74] By August 1972, the city had not released any architectural plans, and the time was drawing near for the pouring of foundations. On August 11, acting on a recommendation from the Fine Arts Committee of the Cleveland City Planning Commission, the county commissioners voted to pour a foundation for a generic building on the site alloted for the city building. The frustrated commissioners said that if the city did not use the site, the county would either build a $9.6 million ($73,900,000 in 2025) county office building there (to be financed with commissioner's bonds) or ask the state to build a new office building there.^[102]

On October 7, 1972, the city finally signed a formal agreement agreeing to build a municipal court building. The agreement gave the city a one-third ownership in the entire Justice Center complex.^[103] The exact size and footprint of the municipal building was not established, however, and it was not until early December that Perk told the county to proceed with foundations for a six-story office building.^[104]

Cleveland police headquarters dispute

Initially, Mayor Perk announced on November 23, 1971, that he supported construction of a $9.6 million ($76,300,000 in 2025) police headquarters at the Justice Center site .^[71] City planners continued to work on the proposed police headquarters in December,^[p] with costs now pegged at close to $11 million ($84,700,000 in 2025).^[63]

Perk's January 2, 1973, threat to pull out of the Justice Center project put police headquarters construction in doubt.^[95]

Cleveland police opposition to a new police headquarters at the Justice Center site emerged on February 25, 1972, when Police Chief Gerald J. Rademaker^[q] declared the city police had never been consulted on the site location. Rademaker proposed that the new police building be constructed at the so-called "Erieview II" urban redevelopment site.^[108][r] Hugh Corrigan, president of the Cuyahoga County Commissioners, was outraged by Rademaker's statement, and claimed the Cleveland Police had agreed to the Ontario Street site in 1971.^[76] On March 4, former Cleveland Police Chiefs Lewis W. Coffey and Patrick L. Gerity backed up Rademaker, claiming former Mayor Carl Stokes had never consulted them about the site of the new building. Rademaker added new objections on March 4, claiming the county-preferred site would be an easy target for terrorists and that traffic congestion and parking problems would make the site impossible to use. Former Cleveland Safety Director^[s] George W. O'Connor called Rademaker's complaints "a smokescreen", and pointed out that the 1970 Wilbur Smith & Associates study had found the Rademaker's preferred site to be much worse in terms of traffic congestion.^[105] Rademaker's preferred site would also impede growth at Cleveland State University^[105] and require an expensive widening of Payne Avenue.^[109]

Rademaker's opposition forced the county to place site demolition on hold.^[76] (This problem was resolved on April 5, 1972, with the municipal court agreement.)^[67]

Rademaker withdrew his claim about the threat of terrorism on March 5, but reiterated his concern about parking. Former chief Coffey claimed he sent Mayor Stokes a 10-page memo outlining his concerns about the Ontario Street site seven days before the November 1970 election, but never received a response. Rademaker went even further, claiming he had only been consulted about the site selection a week ago.^[110] Cleveland Municipal Court Chief Justice Richard M. Brennan also attacked Rademaker, arguing he was breaking a 1970 agreement to build wherever the Wilbur Smith & Associates study said to build.^[97] On March 23, Chief Rademaker raised additional objections to the county-preferred site. He claimed that the tall buildings surrounding the site would wreak havoc with police radio communications; that moving the recently-rebuilt police communications center would be "difficult", and cost more than $1 million ($7,700,000 in 2025); and that the planned building left no room for expansion.^[111] Two days later, the Perk administration signalled that it was considering withdrawing from the Justice Center project. City planning director Norman Krumholz estimated the cost of the police building at $15 million ($115,500,000 in 2025), two-thirds more than the November 1971 estimate, and said its construction was not on a list of the administration's top-priority budget items for the year.^[99]

The police department's opposition did not immediately delay the construction on the Justice Center, however. Prindle, Patrick architects said their design for the jail and county courthouse permitted easy connection to a future police structure.^[53]

Mayor Perk appeared to relax his opposition to the police headquarters building on August 16, when he asked Chief Rademaker to restudy his objections. Rademaker balked at the suggestion, arguing that he had never received an answer to his previous complaints.^[112] On October 26, 1972, Perk met with Chief Rademaker, Safety Director James T. Carney, and the Cuyahoga County commssioners to discuss the Justice Center. After the meeting, Perk said he now favored construction of a new police headquarters on the Justice Center site. He denied having made an actual decision, however.^[113] In December 1972, the cost of the police headquarters was re-estimated at $11 million ($84,700,000 in 2025)^[114] (although the press continued to cite the $15 million figure in January 1973).^[115]

By March 1973, pressure on the city to approve the police headquarters began to increase. Work on the foundation was about to begin. The total cost of the complex would be much lower if the foundation was constructed to include a police building. The county also needed to know how much parking to plan for, and the city was unwilling to let the county build a parking garage behind the Cuyahoga County Courthouse if no new police headquarters was going to be built nearby.^[116] Mayor Perk said he would not be rushed, however.^[117] On March 17, The Plain Dealer reported that Chief Rademaker now privately admitted that a new police headquarters built at the Justice Center site would be a significant improvement, even if communications and parking issues were not totally resolved. The newspaper said that the Perk administration was withholding its commitment merely to win concessions from the county on several matters.^[118]

Mayor Perk finally agreed to build a new police headquarters at the Justice Center site on March 20, 1973.^[119] The decision came after a three-hour meeeting between the city and county, in which both sides made concessions.^[120] The city agreed to purchase 1.6 acres (6,500 m²) of land at the Justice Center site from the county for $2.48 million ($20,300,000 in 2025), with funds for the purchase coming from the city's capital budget.^[121] The city agreed to build a police headquarters on the land at a cost of $12 to $15 million ($87,000,000 to ($108,800,000 in 2025).^[121] The city would raise funds for this building by issuing councilmanic bonds.^[119] The city also agreed that the police headquarters should be stylistically similar in design to the other Justice Center structures,^[121] and that Mayor Perk retained the right to name the architect who would design the interior.^[119] The city agreed to use Prindle, Patrick's architectural plans for the police headquarters, and to link the police building to the rest of the complex's HVAC system.^[122] While the police building's foundation would be built by the county, the actual building would be constructed by the city.^[120][t] In turn, the county was required to submit the plans for its structures to the city building department for regulatory approval, and agreed that the county structures would need to meet state building codes. The city and county also agreed to jointly apply for a LEAA grant to move the police communications unit to the new headquarters building, with two-thirds of the grant going to the city. A side-agreement covered several other issues. The city was given the right to lease the Cuyahoga County Criminal Courts Building for $1 a year for 100 years. The city also won the right to demolish this structure and build a new courthouse at its own expense.^[u] The county, in turn, agreed to lease 4.5 acres (18,000 m²) of Fort Huntington Park at $100,000 ($700,000 in 2025) per year for 100 years, with the city granting the county the right to construct an underground parking garage there.^[121]

Power issues

Providing electricity to the Justice Center also proved to be a politically fraught and expensive problem. In 1907, the city of Cleveland formed its own electrical generating public utility, Municipal Light (known as "Muni Light" or "Muni"), to provide inexpensive power to the citizens of Cleveland.^[124] By the early 1970s, however, Muni's power plant was in disrepair and the utility had trouble providing enough power for the people and industry which relied on it.^[125]

In late September 1972, the Cleveland City Council passed legislation requiring the Justice Center to buy its power from Muni rather than Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company (a publicly traded corporation). The county opposed this requirement. It was worried that Muni was an unreliable power provider and believed that state law required the county to obtain power through competitive bidding.^[125] Despite these misgivings, on September 27 the county agreed to allow Muni to provide at least part of the power needs for the Justice Center.^[126]

County commissioner Frank Pokorny^[127] and county commission president Hugh Corrigan^[128] came to oppose the Muni agreement in March 1973. But as part of the negotiations over the construction of the police headquarters, the county agreed in May 1973 that half of all the power needs for the Justice Center would be provided by Muni.^[121][120]

Parking garage issues

The Justice Center project originally included just 300 parking spaces in an underground garage below the complex.^[50] By October 1971, planners were recommending doubling the number of spaces in Justice Center to 600,^[129] with a proportionate increase in cost to $3.8 million ($30,200,000 in 2025).^[52] In January 1972, the CJCC recommended that number of parking spaces at Ft. Hunting Park and the Cuyahoga County Courthouse increase to 2,000 spaces, up from 1,400 spaces,^[51] with the cost of this structure now pegged at $12 million ($95,400,000 in 2025).^[71]

With new parking studies advocating larger facilities and the cost rising very rapidly, the county commissioners in February 1972 considered severing the parking garages from the project and paying for their construction with parking fees to bring the Justice Center's costs down.^[35] They also considered building a surface (rather than underground) parking garage at Ft. Huntington Park.^[130]

In late July 1972, Wilbur Smith & Associates issued its final report on parking at the Justice Center, recommending 1,400 underground parking spaces behind the Cuyahoga County Courthouse and under Ft. Huntington Park, and another 600 spaces beneath the Justice Center itself. Despite the reduction in the total number of parking spaces, the estimated cost had risen significantly to $19 million ($146,200,000 in 2025).^[129]

With parking garage construction costs ballooning, the county commissioners severed these projects from the Justice Center in August 1972. To pay for the parking project, the county hoped to raise $8.1 million ($62,300,000 in 2025) by issuing parking revenue bonds and from state and federal grants.^[131]

The location of the parking facilities now became a problem. In September 1972, the county commissioners offered to give the city its 15-acre (61,000 m²) Nike anti-aircraft missile system site in Bratenahl, Ohio, in exchange for the site behind the Cuyahoga County Courthouse. But Mayor Perk declined the trade.^[132] Negotiations continued, and in early December the city agreed to lease the space behind Cuyahoga County Courthouse to the county for $120,000 ($900,000 in 2025 dollars) a year. The deal also required the county to pay for nearby street improvements to provide access to the underground garage.^[104]

By March 1973, architects were no longer sure that the land behond the courthouse was suitable for a large underground parking facility.^[116] Instead, Prindle, Patrick proposed constructing a 2,200-space facility beneath Ft. Huntington Park.^[133] The city and county entered into discussions for the county to lease 4.5 acres (18,000 m²) of Fort Huntington Park at $100,000 ($700,000 in 2025) a year.^[119] County commissioner Frank Pokorny^[127] and county commission president Hugh Corrigan^[128] both questioned whether it was legal to enter into a lease that was 100 years long, as the city wanted.

On May 30, as part of the city's agreement to construct a new police headquarters, the city and county agreed to the commissioners' previous terms.^[121] The county said it intended to spend $13 million ($94,300,000 in 2025) building this facility.^[134] To cut costs, only 320 parking parking spaces would be built beneath the Justice Center. The county agreed to set aside 250 of these spaces for city use.^[121] Unresolved was a county request for the city to forego $320,000 ($2,300,000 in 2025) in Ft. Huntington Park rent in order to pay for the city set-aside spaces at the Justice Center.^[122]

Several other, less important issues remained unresolved, however. Mayor Perk initially demanded that the county come to terms by June 7,^[121] although he later agreed to extend this deadline to June 30.^[122] A final accord was reached on July 16, 1973. The two parties agreed to establish a jointly-appointed arbitration board to determine penalities in case the county was late finishing work on the access road, and the city agreed to pay $250,000 to build pedestrian stairs from the northen end of the Cleveland Mall to Cleveland Stadium.^[v] The delay in finalizing the agreement left the Justice Center construction schedule several months behind.^[135]

On July 26, 1973, Cuyahoga County officials said the underground parking garage behind the Cuyahoga County Courthouse would accommodate 2,000 cars.^[136] This plan was later altered to provide for 417 spaces in an underground garage below Ft. Huntingon Park and 1,111 spaces in a half-buried garage behind the Cuyahoga County Courthouse.^[137]

Spiralling county costs

The first of many Justice Center cost scandals became public on October 24, 1971, when the county commissioners revealed that the project's total cost had risen to $76 million ($604,200,000 in 2025 dollars). The reasons were many, they said, and included much higher land acqusition costs than anticipated; a decision to expand the complex's footprint to include the Penton Publishing Building; and an architect's decision to link the buildings with a central plaza and mezzanine.^[w] To cut costs, the county cut back the height of the courtroom building to 24 (from 26) floors, and the size of the jail to 1,200 (from 2,000) prisoners.^[52][x]

On January 5, 1972, the CJCC facilites committee recommended reduction of the county courthouse to 22 floors. It also recommended that the city build an 18-story municipal court tower.^[51]

On February 25, 1972, Mayor Perk complained about the fees being paid to Prindle, Patrick & Associates. The firm's contract called for them to be paid 7 percent of the total final cost of the Justice Center. The Plain Dealer, quoting local architects (whom it did not name), said that 5 or 6 percent was more appropriate, although 7 percent was not unheardof.^[35][y]

The county commissioners now began to discuss ways to save money. Controversially, in mid-July the county commissioners asked Prindle, Patrick to reduce the number of fire sprinklers and the amount of fireproofing throughout the Justice Center (to save $1.5 million ($11,500,000 in 2025)), and to eliminate structural barriers to fire in the jail building (to save an unspecified amount of money).^[138] The request was harshly condemned by the Cleveland Fire Chief.^[139]

In mid-August 1972, the total cost of the Justice Center rose to $91 million ($700,400,000 in 2025)—a figure which did not include the cost of parking garages. The reasons for the rise in costs were not made clear by the county, although the commissioners admitted that they had failed to budget for $2 million ($15,400,000 in 2025) to furnish the new structures. To keep costs from further ballooning, the county commissioners said they had ordered the architects to use less expensive and less strong materials. Finding funds for the cost overruns was proving difficult. The voter-approved bonds would cover $51.7 million ($397,900,000 in 2025) in construction costs, and the county was counting on receiving $25.2 million ($192,400,000 in 2025) from the city of Cleveland to construct the police headquarters and the municipal court building. Another $6 million ($46,200,000 in 2025) in federal grants was helping to cover planning costs, and the county still hoped for several tens of millions of dollars in federal grants to help with construction.^[131]

Just days after issuing the new cost figures, Cuyahoga County asked for $3.6 million ($27,700,000 in 2025 dollars) in crime control funds from the state of Ohio, with $2 million ($15,400,000 in 2025) of this money earmarked for construction of the Justice Center.^[140] $1.5 million ($11,500,000 in 2025) of this money was received on October 9.^[141]

Debates over the use of internal space in the two county buildings continued into September 1972.^[142] Prindle, Patrick now proposed adding one or more pedestrian skyways to the buildings, and landscaping the complex with benches, a fountain, plaza, sculpture garden, and walkways. The county had not budgeted for these items, and so asked the Ohio Department of Natural Resources for $575,000 ($4,200,000 in 2025) in matching funds to help pay for them.^[133] Some planning and design costs were covered by a $3 million ($23,100,000 in 2025) LEAA grants, received in late 1972 and early 1973.^[143] The city and county agreed to apply for another $1.5 million in LEAA planning grants in May 1973, as well as $375,000 ($2,700,000 in 2025) in matching planning grants from the state of Ohio.^[144]

Design controversy

As final planning for the Justice Center occurred in the spring and summer of 1972, the architectural design was submitted to the Fine Arts Committee of the Cleveland City Planning Commission, which had the legal right to review it and either recommend its adoption, its adoption with changes, or its rejection. It is not clear when the Fine Arts Committee received the design, but news reports placed it very late in the planning and design process, and the committee had little time to review the plans before construction began. The committee was deeply unhappy with the design, and ordered significant changes to the massing of the buildings at the corner of Lakeside and Ontario.^[145]

The Fine Arts Committee was so concerned about the architectural designs for the Justice Center that it asked the city-county oversight committee to establish a three-person body to review the aesthetic design of the complex.^[145] This committee was swiftly established, and included architects Peter Van Dijk of Cleveland, Don M. Hisaki of Cleveland, and Hamilton Smith of New York City. Their report, issued privately to the city-county advisory committee and the county commissioners in late August 1972, branded the Prindle, Patrick-designed exterior "mediocre".^[142] Privately, one panelist likened the design to "an outhouse".^[36] In response, the county agreed to hire Pietro Belluschi, Dean Emeritus of the MIT School of Architecture and Planning, to assist in redesigning the exterior. Belluschi strongly criticized the placement of the buildings on the site and the way the structures were to be connected. His commission was subsequently expanded by the county to include redesign of these elements as well. The Plain Dealer obtained a copy of the architectural review committee's report and made its contents public on September 9, 1972.^[142] Alarmed by the architectural review committee report, Mayor Perk threatened to withhold city-required building permits for the Justice Center if the aesthetic problems were not corrected.^[146]

To help resolve the issue, the Fine Arts Committee agreed to a rare joint session with the Cleveland City Planning Commission.^[146] Over the next eight days, Belluschi worked with Prindle, Patrick architects to revise the design of the Justice Center. At the joint session held on September 22, Van Dijk called the placement of buildings on the site "arbitrary" and pointed to extensive design inconsistencies across the complex. Belluschi described the Prindle, Patrick design as "average" and admitted that the changes made in the last eight days had been merely "cosmetic". Allen Patrick, partner in Prindle, Patrick and one of the architects on the complex, blamed unresolved interior space usage issues for the poor exterior design, but cautioned that scrapping the design and starting from scratch would mean a six-month delay and add $5 million ($38,500,000 in 2025) to the center's cost. The Cleveland Fine Arts Committee then voted to reject the design by a vote of 6 to 4.^[146] Sherman E. Lee, director of the Cleveland Museum of Art and a member of the Fine Arts panel, said, "Their design simply made no sense. There was no relation to any system of logic and thinking."^[36] Cleveland City Planning Commission members overwhelmingly expressed their desire to reject the design as well, but Belluschi cautioned that he would be unable to devote the time needed for a full redesign. The city planning commission then reversed themselves, overruled the Fine Arts Committee, and reluctantly approved the Justice Center design. The meeting ended with planning commission members criticizing the design, calling it aesthetically akin to a "WPA project".^[146]

Belluschi and R.A. Kratoville, Justice Center managing architect for Prindle, Patrick,^[147] continued to work on the aesthetics of the Justice Center over the next few weeks. Their work, frequently submitted to the Fine Arts Committee, began to make the complex more acceptable to city planning bodies.^[114] The architects eliminated a three-story wing along Lakeside Avenue (designed to connect the county courts tower and sheriff/jail building), which Belluschi had called "jumbled" and "confusing", and altered the aesthetic treatment of the two county structures to make them more architecturally alike. The architects also increased the height of the county court tower to 23 stories,^[147] repositioned the county courthouse^[148] to add more open space, and added a three-story atrium in the center of the site to link all three structures.^[49] These revised plans met with the approval of two of the Fine Arts Committee's 15 members^[147] and the city planning commission.^[148]

Among the major design issues was the cladding for the building. The cost of an International Style steel-and-glass structure was estimated at $1.7 to $4.8 million ($11,100,000 to $34,800,000 in 2025), while the cost of stone facing was in the $7.7 to $10.8 million ($50,300,000 to $78,300,000 in 2025) range.^[149] The Cleveland City Planning Commission wanted to stay away from "yet another" steel-and-glass box, and narrowed the cladding choices to marble or granite. Prindle, Patrick recommended either pink granite from Spain or pink marble from Tennessee. Belluschi preferred granite, even though it cost $2 million ($14,500,000 in 2025) more.^[150] The county chose Spanish granite.^[151]

Construction manager hiring scandal

The county commissioners decided to use fast-track construction techniques to build the Justice Center. Because this required construction management skills which county personnel lacked, the county sought to hire a construction manager to oversee the project. State law forbade their use, so the county sought passage of a state law removing this restriction. This legislation was enacted by the Ohio Legislature in September 1971.^[35]

The county began advertising for a construction manager the third week of April 1972. The city-county advisory committee agreed to select some finalists and make a recommendation for a winning firm to the city-county planning oversight committee, which would have the final say. Although SB 443 was still pending in the legislature and the county did not have legal authority to hire a construction manager, more than 40 firms expressed an interest in the job,^[130] whose fees alone were estimated to be $1 million ($7,700,000 in 2025).^[152]

On June 6, 1972, the advisory committee announced the four finalists for the construction manager position: The H.K. Ferguson Co., a subsidiary of the Cleveland construction firm Morrison-Knudsen Co.; Turner Construction of Cleveland; Roediger Corp. of Cleveland, in association with Jones Construction of New York City; and the George A. Fuller Co. of New York City.^[74] On June 13, the oversight committee chose the Fuller Company as the construction manager. The company's bid of $2 million ($15,400,000 in 2025) was the highest, it was in financial difficulty, it had been sued several times recently over its performance, and there were deep concerns as to whether the company's new management (it had recently been acquired by Northrop Corporation and many of its top executives had left) could handle a project as complex as the Justice Center.^[153][154] Nevertheless, the oversight committee approved the selection of Fuller.^[153] During final contract negotiations, the Fuller Co. lowered its fee by $216,000 ($1,700,000 in 2025).^[155] The choice of the Fuller Co. proved highly contentious, and was strongly condemned by The Plain Dealer. Members of the oversight committee denied knowing about the firm's problems prior to its selection,^[154] and members of the advisory committee publicly admitted that Turner Construction, not Fuller Co., had been their top choice. But the advisory committee said its job was not to rank the finalists, just to recommend one or more bidders to the oversight committee.^[156] County commissioners Frank R. Pokorny and Seth Taft, however, both affirmed the choice of the Fuller Co. as the construction manager, and said they would not cancel the contract.^[157] After discussing the issue on July 8, the county commissioners expressed their anger at the advisory committee for airing its grievances^[158] and rejected any rebidding process.^[159]

In October 1972, the county finally signed a long-term contract with the Fuller Co.^[103][z] The $900,000 ($6,900,000 in 2025 contract included a separate $900,000 expense account.^[160]

Groundbreaking

Groundbreaking for the Justice Center was set for October 12, 1972.^[161] Excavation was to be followed by dewatering and then the pouring and building of foundations.^[162] The total cost of excavation was estimated at $3.3 million ($25,400,000 in 2025),^[161] but bids came in $1.3 million ($10,000,000 in 2025) lower than expected.^[162]

Delays meant that the actual groundbreaking did not occur until October 19, 1972. Excavation work was done by two firms, the Spencer White & Prentis Co. and Independence Excavating Co. Excavation, and foundation work was anticipated to be complete in May 1974, with the Justice Center fully completed in late 1975.^[163] Foundation work was delayed, however, because the Justice Center's underground parking garage had never been designed. Work on that design, conducted by the George S. Rider Co., did not begin until November 1972.^[164] After numerous changes, the space ended up with 369 spaces in July 1974.^[165]

Foundation work

Work on the Justice Center's foundation began on April 1, 1973.^[116] With bedrock in downtown Cleveland 160 feet (49 m) below the surface,^[166] the architectural plans for the foundation called for pilings to be sunk 35 feet (11 m) into the soil.^[167] The county issued a call for bids in early 1973, but all the binds came in far higher than the budget. The job was rebid,^[128] but even the lowest bid came in $300,000 ($2,200,000 in 2025 dollars) higher than $1.8 million ($13,100,000 in 2025 dollars) budget.^[168]

A minor scandal erupted over the bidding process in May 1973, when The Plain Dealer reported allegations that Prindle, Patrick and the George Fuller Co. had attempted to undermine the bid of one of the bidders (Spencer, White & Prentis of New York City).^[169] County officials learned that Fuller was about to recommend the Milgard Corp. of Livonia, Michigan, even though it had not interviewed Milgard or Spencer, White & Prentis officials. When county officials tried to meet with representatives of Fuller to investigate the issue, the Fuller people declined to appear. With foundation work now two months behind schedule,^[170] Cuyahoga County finally awarded the foundation contract to Milgard. Prindle, Patrick changed the design of the foundation, abandoning pilings in favor of caissons set on bedrock.^[aa] County officials hoped to have the foundation completed in three months.^[166]

Excavation work on the police headquarters site began in June 1973.^[172] Architectural plans called for a slab beneath the Justice Center.^[172] Foundation work proceeded much slower than hoped, however. A $596,000 ($4,300,000 in 2025 dollars) contract for the slabs was not let until October 4 (it was won by the Albert M. Higley Co.),^[173] and this work did not near completion until the end of the year. A second, $2.15 million ($15,600,000 in 2025 dollars) contract (also awarded to Higley) was let on December 12, 1973, for the belowground concrete walls and floors, which would bring construction to ground level.^[174]

County courthouse bids

Although no actual construction work began on the county courts tower, bids for work were let throughout 1973. These included a $9.7 million ($70,400,000 in 2025 dollars) contract for structural steel^[160] and a $507,000 ($3,700,000 in 2025 dollars) contract to install it.^[175] The cost of the steel contract rose by nearly $125,000 ($900,000 in 2025 dollars) after architects calculated that the weight of the granite facade required a stronger building frame.^[176] The steel contract was won by Bethlehem Steel in July.^[177]

Trouble emerged with the contract for metal floor decking and studs. The H.H. Robertson Co. appeared to have won the $816,500 ($5,900,000 in 2025 dollars) contract for provision and installation of these items.^[173] The call for bids required that 17 to 19 percent of the winning firm's workforce had to be from a racial minority (a requirements designed to overcome racial discrimination in the building trades). But the Robertsons firm could not certify that it met the requirement.^[178] The company almost lost the bid, until it provided minority employment figures on October 18, 1973.^[179]

County jail bids

A handful of bids for the county jail/sheriff's headquarters were also let in 1973. Prindle, Patrick designed the tower so that the sheriff's department occupied the first and second floors, and the jail the next 11 floors. In addition for cells, there was space for providing medical treatment, job and psychiatric counseling, archives, a research department, and the sheriff's detectives. The total cost of the detention center was estimated in July 1973 to be $25 million ($181,300,000 in 2025 dollars).^[180] In order to keep costs down, concrete block and heavy-gauge glass were used instead of steel for most interior walls.^[181]

Delays in designing the jail meant that bidding on its construction did not begin until June. The Fort Pitt Bridge Division of Spang Industries won the $335,785 ($2,400,000 in 2025 dollars) contract to construct the structure's reinforced concerete columns in July.^[177] But the county did not even advertise the $5.6 million ($40,600,000 in 2025 dollars) for the building's concrete and steel until mid December.^[174]

Police headquarters delays and bids

With the city having agreed to build a new police headquarters at the Justice Center site on March 20,^[119] the city needed to pass an ordinance making the contract law. County Commissioner Seth Taft (an attorney by trade) drafted the legislation for the city. City Council majority leader George Forbes delayed hearings on it for two weeks to give the city leverage in parking garage negotiations.^[182] Cleveland Law Director Herbert Whiting charged in return that Taft deleted three provisions from the ordinance which would have favored the city.^[183] On July 10, the city council went on a two-week recess without approving any funds for the police headquarters.^[184] The conflict over the ordinance was not resolved until July 31, when it finally was enacted by the city council.^[185]

Costs were being incurred, however. In July, the county billed the city $2.64 million ($19,100,000 in 2025 dollars) for demolition, excavation, and dewatering of the headquarters site.^[183] The city later agreed to reimburse the county $500,000 ($3,600,000 in 2025 dollars) for foundation construction and $1.77 million ($12,800,000 in 2025 dollars) courthouse land. The city also agreed to pay $15 million ($108,800,000 in 2025 dollars to pay for its share of courthouse construction.^[185]

In August 1973, the Cleveland Chapter of the American Institute of Architects (AIA) announced it had undertaken an ethics probe of police headquarters architect Richard L. Bowen.^[186] Bowen, hired by the city in May as a consultant on the Justice Center,^[120] admitted that he bid on the project while still a city employee and even though he knew three others firms submitting their own bids.^[186] Despite the investigation, the city gave Bowen the $1 million architectural design contract for the police building on August 18.^[187] The investigation lasted 18 months, and in March 1975 a five-member panel of the Cleveland AIA censured Bowen (but imposed no penalty or disciplinary action).^[188]

A call for bids for work on the police building were issued in July. City officials were upset when all the bids for the facade but one came in more than 10 percent over the estimate, which meant, by law, they could not be accepted. Beer Precast Concrete of Scarborough, Ontario, Canada, won the $12,267,000 ($89,000,000 in 2025 dollars) contract (even though it was $658,000 ($5,000,000 in 2025 dollars) over the estimate). All bids for metal decking and studs were rejected for the same reason.^[189] In late December 1973, the city awarded a $650,000 ($4,700,000 in 2025 dollars) construction management contract to a joint venture by Turner Construction and Ozanne Construction.^[190]

The construction managers estimated that it would take 21 to 26 months^[191] to construct the police headquarters, which was now believed to cost $20.2 million ($146,500,000 in 2025 dollars).^[190]

Parking garage financing

Plans for the $14.5 million ($105,200,000 in 2025 dollars) Ft. Huntington Park parking garage now called for just 1,650 spaces, with a connecting tunnel to the Justice Center. Plans for the $5.6 million ($40,600,000 in 2025 dollars) parking garage below the Justice Center now called for 600 spaces on 2 levels.^[192]

Cuyahoga County officials issued $650,000 ($4,700,000 in 2025 dollars) in notes to begin construction on the Ft. Huntington Park parking garage.^[193][ab] Officials said construction would begin on May 15, 1974, and the garage would open in mid 1976.^[192]

Cost overruns on the Justice Center complex led Cuyahoga County officials to sever the parking garage projects from the larger construction effort in December 1973.^[194][ac]

Worsening costs

In late August 1973, Cuyahoga County officials revealed that the cost of the Justice Center complex had risen by $3.5 million to $94.5 million ($685,400,000 in 2025 dollars). It had already spent $14.5 million ($105,200,000 in 2025 dollars)^{[195] [ad]} and expected to spend $79.5 million ($513,500,000 in 2025 dollars) on construction.^[196][ae] Another $20.2 million ($146,500,000 in 2025 dollars) would be spent by the city constructing the police headquaters.^[196] County officials were also forced to set aside $2 million ($14,500,000 in 2025 dollars) as a cushion against inflation.^[195]

Cost revelations continued to be made through the end of the year. In September, Fuller Construction agreed to forego a $100,000 ($700,000 in 2025 dollars) expense account that permitted company officials to travel to Spain to oversee granite cutting there.^[151][197] Inflation was rising so strongly that by September 19 a third of the $2 million inflation cushion had been spent. County officials now cut back the number of electrical outlets throughout the complex and the architects reduced the thickness of the complex's steel frame structure to save money. The county commissioners even considered cutting back the jail by a floor.^[198] On September 27, the city of Cleveland hired Pietro Belluschi as a design and cost consultant.^[199]

Despite cutting 350 parking spaces from the Ft. Huntington Park garage,^[192] the cost of that garage had risen 7.5 percent to $12.9 million ($93,600,000 in 2025 dollars) in September 1973.^[193] The cost of the Justice Center parking garage had risen nearly 150 percent to $5.6 million ($40,600,000 in 2025 dollars).^[192] Anticipating Justice Center costs to rise even further, the Cuyahoga County Commissioners separated both parking garage projects from the larger project in Decembeer 1973.^[194]

Significant design changes

At the beginning of February 1974, the county commissioners learned that the Justice Center was facing cost overruns of $20 million,^[66][202] with the total cost likely to be $108 million ($705,100,000 in 2025 dollars).^[37] The cosmetic facade changes ordered by the Cleveland City Planning Commission had contributed $14 million ($91,400,000 in 2025 dollars) to the cost^[203] (rather than the $6 million [$39,200,000 in 2025 dollars] previously estimated). Extensive changes had to be made in order to bring the cost down. The commissioners agreed to cut five floors^[202] (three from the courthouse tower and two from the jail),^[204] eliminating eight courtrooms and decreasing the size of the jail so it could hold just 900 prisoners (down from 1,250).^[66][af] Other major changes included extensive electrical, mechanical, and plumbing cutbacks (for a savings of $5 million [$32,600,000 in 2025 dollars]);^[37][ag] leaving the top two floors in the court tower unfinished (saving $1.76 million [$10,400,000 in 2025 dollars])^[37] and making extensive interior design changes.^{[202][203][ah]} The commissioners hoped to cap the county's cost at $85 million($554,900,000 in 2025 dollars).^[66][202]

Criticism of the decision was extensive. Common Pleas judges attacked the cutbacks, arguing that the changes eliminated all space for future growth.^[66] County Commissioner Seth Taft rebutted that the cutbacks came from space which would not be needed until 1990, and there was plenty of time to figure out what to do before then.^[204] The Plain Dealer said the decorative changes meant a "second-rate" complex.^[203] Additionally, Taft, editorial staff at The Plain Dealer, and Neil J. Carrothers, former director of planning and physical development for the Cleveland Clinic, all claimed the complex's original design was too luxurious.^[37] Cleveland city budget director Vincent C. Campanella pointed out that if the county was correct and the cutbacks did not affect the efficiency of the Justice Center, then the county had, in fact, proposed a previous design that was "frivolous". But if the county had originally approved a bare-bones structure, then the cutbacks would seriously impair the project.^[204] Angered by what he perceived as broken promises by the county, Cleveland Mayor Ralph Perk demanded an investigation into the Fuller Co.'s claim about the cost overruns.^[207]

A number of reasons were given for the extensive cost overruns and construction delays.^[ai] The Fuller Construction Co. blamed Prindle, Patrick for the delays, claiming the project was too big for the firm to handle.^[37] It also pointed to the extensive delay caused by the police building negotiations, and to additions by the architects due to an ever-expanding and changing facility demanded by various planning bodies.^[68] County commission president Hugh Corrigan blamed Fuller for the delays, arguing the company was not doing its job efficiently. Numerous unidentified sources told The Plain Dealer that the large number of civic groups, advisory bodies, officials, planning committees, and city and county agencies involved in designing the Justice Center simply could not make up their minds about what was needed, delaying the project by months. Cost overruns, said The Plain Dealer (citing confidential sources), were the fault of the Justice Center Advisory Committee, which failed in its oversight capacity to keep costs low. Cleveland planning director Norman Krumholz and architect Peter Van Dijk questioned Prindle, Patrick's ability to estimate costs accurately.^[aj] Prindle, Patrick, for its part, blamed Fuller for not providing correct estimates. Other unidentified sources cited by The Plain Dealer pointed to the lengthy delay in completing the project's architectural plans, which made accurate cost estimates exceedingly difficult.^[37] Fuller Construction said it made the best cost estimates it could. Cost estimates were supposed to be made once Fuller had half of all architect drawings in hand; Fuller claimed the Justice Center was in such flux, it had never received half the drawings. It made its cost estimates in November 1973 based on the drawings it had.^[68]

In its initial response to the redesign controversy, Cuyahoga County commissioners turned over all county-related Justice Center planning to County Administrator William S. Gaskill. The county also said that it would stop making cost estimates and rely instead on actual bids to get a better idea of costs going forward.^[37] This meant accurate cost estimates would not be available until June 1974.^[209]

On February 20, claiming the city had been kept in the dark about cost overruns, Mayor Perk demanded a meeting with the Fuller Co.; Prindle, Patrick architects; and county construction officials. Tensions were so high that the Justice Center Advisory Committee was required to referee the meeting,^[210] and the public and media were barred.^[211] Some new cost increases were revealed at the February 21 city-county meeting. The cost of using Muni to provide half the power at the complex added $650,000 ($4,200,000 in 2025 dollars), and the year-long construction delay had wiped out the $12 million ($78,300,000 in 2025 dollars) in cost savings the county achieved using fast-track construction methods.^[208] County officials revealed they were considering canceling the parking garage project, after cost estimates came in at $9,550 ($62,346 in 2025 dollars) per space (the median cost was $2,200 ($14,362 in 2025 dollars) per space).^[137] City Council majority leader George Forbes asked the county if it would seek voter approval for a new bond issue which would allow it to restore the redacted floors to the Justice Center. Corrigan categorically refused.^[212] Architect Allen L. Patrick told the attendees that another $5 million ($32,600,000 in 2025 dollars) in cuts could be made to the complex, if needed.^[213] Only a handful of decisions were made during the meeting. The city agreed to immediately post the $19.3 million needed for police headquarters construction,^[211] the county agreed to turn over some space in the jail to the city to accommodate accommodate city prisoners, and the city agreed to drop its demand for independent cost assessment.^[208] The two sides agreed to discuss HVAC issues,^[214] and to have further meetings.^[211]

On March 18, The Plain Dealer reported that a number of luxury items remained in the Justice Center design. Dr. Michael F. Wong, an expert hired to advise on the jail and court tower's design, said these included several private dining rooms and private showers; an excessive number of lounges, jury rooms, and conference rooms on each floor; too much on-site archival space; excessively large clerical and judicial offices; exceptionally large reception areas; and too many offices for the use of court reporters, private attorneys, and probation officers.^[215] Moreover, although space for a new bomb squad and large increases in the number of clerks of court, probation officers, and secretarial staff were included, the county had undertaken no study of how many employees would actually be needed in the future, nor engaged in any budget planning to hire these new workers.^[216][217]

On March 25, the city of Cleveland agreed to the changes imposed by Cuyahoga County. Under the agreement, the city received enough space to accommodate its existing courts, but no space for expansion. The city also agreed to pay $450,000 ($2,900,000 in 2025 dollars) to redesign a floor of the jail to accommodate city prisoners, and to pay $100,000 ($700,000 in 2025 dollars) for a water main to the new building. The city also agreed to reduce the rent for the off-site parking garage to $97,000 ($600,000 in 2025 dollars) a year. In return, the county agreed to let the city provide its own utilities, and reduce payment to the county by $1 million ($6,500,000 in 2025 dollars).^[218]

Upset by the revelations, Sheriff Kreiger and Judge Francis J. Talty refused to sign any new contracts that contained jail cutbacks,^{[217][219][ak]}

In May 1974, Cuyahoga County officials learned that the cost of the jail and courthouse had risen another $10 million ($65,300,000 in 2025 dollars), to $90.5 million ($590,800,000 in 2025 dollars). Construction costs on the off-site parking garages had now reached $15 million ($97,900,000 in 2025 dollars). The county commissioners reluctantly decided to increase the number of unfinished floors to seven, saving $6 million ($39,200,000 in 2025 dollars).^[69] The change reduced the number of courtrooms in the tower to just 25 (10 for the city and 15 for the county).^[220] The decision angered Thomas J. Parrino, an adminsitrative judge of with the Court of Common Pleas, who announced that he was joining Kreiger and Talty in refusing to sign off on any more contracts.^[69] Cleveland officials then threatened to pull out of the court tower project unless a cap on costs was imposed. When the county asked the city to absorb its "share" of the unfinished space, the city refused. The county then suspended work on the police building foundations until the city came to an agreement.^[221] These talks broke off after one day when the county refused to cap city costs at $21 million ($137,100,000 in 2025 dollars).^[222]

Two weeks later, the county admitted it needed $12 million ($78,300,000 in 2025 dollars) to finish the Justice Center.^[223]

Schulman lawsuits

In June 1973, a local citizen filed suit to stop the Justice Center project. Attorney Milton Schulman was a citizen activist who had opposed a wide range of city and county projects in court, arguing that they were ill-planned, too expensive, and fraught with corruption. In his Justice Center complaint, Schulman asserted the county was going to spend more than the $61 million authorized by the voter-approved bond.^[224] Schulman amended his complaint in August 1973, arguing that project costs would be 50 to 60 percent higher than claimed and that state law did not permit cost overruns of more than 10 percent. He also alleged that the county had failed to establish a seven-person contract approval board, as required by state law.^[225]

Court of Common Pleas Judge Frank J. Gorman ruled against Schulman in mid-December 1973.^[226] The county, however, admitted that it had indeed failed to establish the contract approval board. It immediately set one up.^[227]

Schulman appealed to the Ohio Eighth District Court of Appeals. His appeal kept the county from issuing $31 million ($202,400,000 in 2025 dollars) in bonds, which cost the county $1.15 million ($7,500,000 in 2025 dollars) by March 1974.^[228] The court of appeals voted unanimously on April 18, 1974, to suspend Cuyahoga County's authority to approve new contracts until the county could show that all existing contracts had been approved as required by law, and that the county had complete architectural drawings, specifications, and plans in hand (as required by law) before allowing more contracts.^[229]

In early May 1974, the county met the burdens imposed by the court of appeals.^[230] Schulman appealed to the Ohio Supreme Court, and included new allegations of official malfeasance against county officials.^[223] The state supreme court declined to hear his appeal.

Schulman filed a second lawsuit in June 1974, challenging the county's legal authority to hire a construction manager.^[231] The Court of Common Pleas dismissed this suit in July.^[232]

Schulman filed another lawsuit in the spring of 1975, alleging that the county had failed to comply with previous court rulings and that county officials had engaged in malfeasance in office. Court of Common Pleas Judge James F. Kilcoyne ruled against him on both claims in August 1975.^[233] Schulman appealed to the Ohio Supreme Court in April 1976,^[234] but the high court declined to hear his appearl on May 1, 1977.^[235]

Fuller Construction Co. scandal

City and county worries over the performance of the Fuller Construction Co. grew in the wake of the redesign controversy. Although the county had (at some point in 1972 or 1973) hired engineer William B. Maynard at $25,000 ($163,209 in 2025 dollars) a year to provide oversight of Fuller, and hired attorney Abraham M. Braun at $110 ($718 in 2025 dollars) a day to ensure Fuller acted according to law, the county now hired former Cleveland Clinic director Neil J. Carrothers to provide additional oversight of the construction manager. Carrothers was hired at $135 ($881 in 2025 dollars) a day for up to 90 days.^[227]

In April, controversy over the Fuller Construction erupted again. The company requested $600,000 ($3,900,000 in 2025 dollars) more to complete its contract, now that conclusion of construction would be delayed six months beyond the scheduled end of the agreement. County commissioners Corrigan and Pokorny said they were leaning against extension of the company's contract.^[68] A few days later, county officials admitted that they caught Fuller Construction attempting to get reimbursement for a wide range of expenses not related to the Justice Center project, and that the county had spent several thousand dollars outfitting the Fuller Construction office in Cleveland.^[236] On May 24, the lowest bid for HVAC in the Justice Center came in $5.18 million ($33,800,000 in 2025 dollars)^[237] above the estimate of $16.5 million ($107,700,000 in 2025 dollars).^[230] Corrigan was outraged, and threatened to fire Fuller Construction immediately. Fuller officials blamed inflation for the missed estimate. To handle the overrun, county commissioners were forced to reduce the strength of concrete in the courts tower and jail, and to eliminate noise-reduction measures in mechanical areas.^[237]

Perk requested a May 25 meeting with Fuller and county officials, which was granted after H. Chapman Rose (chair of the Justice Center Advisory Committee) requested that the county do so. At the meeting, Perk proposed that the city take over construction and ownership of the Justice Center, and lease portions to the county.^[238] County commissioners Corrigan and Pokorny harangued Fuller officials for hiding the effect inflation was having on the Justice Center,^[239][al] revealed that relations between Fuller Construction and Prindle, Patrick were so poor that the county had been forced to intervene. Corrigan and Pokorny further revealed Fuller Construction had been fired from a major construction project in Illinois in the summer of 1973, calling into doubt its ability to handle the Justice Center project.^[240]

After the May 25 meeting, Corrigan said he would push for Fuller Construction to be fired from the Justice Center project.^[240] Mayor Perk announced he would seek to have Prindle, Patrick fired as well.^[241] County Commissioner Taft, who was on vacation and not at the meeting, said he would withhold judgment on Fuller until he had investigated the case himself.^[242]

On June 13, Fuller Construction admitted that the cost of the court tower and jail would reach $104 million ($678,900,000 in 2025 dollars). The Cuyahoga County commissioners attempted to negotiate an end to the Fuller Construction contract, but the company refused to negotiate. Corrigan and Taft then voted on June 12 to fire Fuller.^[243] The following day, the commissioners voted to hire Turner Construction as the new Justice Center construction manager. Terms of the contract were nearly identical to those with Fuller. The cost of the contract, which ran until the end of September 1976 (the expected end of construction), was $1.35 million ($8,800,000 in 2025 dollars).^[244]

Fuller Construction threatened to sue the county for breach of contract. On July 17, 1974, the two parties reached an out-of-court settlement. Cuyahoga County agreed to pay Fuller Construction the remaining money due under its contract, and the parties agreed to end the contract by mutual consent. The county furthermore agreed to repay Fuller more than $330,000 ($2,154,352 in 2025 dollars) in fees and expenses, and Fuller agreed not to sue.^[245]

Resolving funding for Justice Center cost overruns

By the end of May 1974, both the city and county had realized that further cuts at the Justice Center were unacceptable, and another way had to be found to cover the rising costs. Squire Sanders & Dempsey, bond counsel for both parties, was asked by the city and county to find ways to raise more funds.^[246] The city tentatively agreed to pay up to $21 million ($137,100,000 in 2025 dollars) for its share of the courts tower, even as costs on the police headquarters rose to $22 million ($143,600,000 in 2025 dollars).^[247] For the county, it was not clear if it could legally issue councilmanic bonds, or a special bond, to finish the project.^[248] For his part, Mayor Perk offered to issue $20 million ($130,600,000 in 2025 dollars) in bonds to finish the project.^[239]

An additional $1.5 million ($9,800,000 in 2025 dollars) in savings were made at the end of May by eliminating the snow-melting heating elements under the complex sidewalks, reducing plaza and street lighting, using moveable partitions in some areas instead of walls, cutting the amount of insulation in the courts tower, reducing the number of water pumps in the complex, using prefabricated air ducts instead of manufacturing specially-made ones, and reducing the number of heating units in the courts tower.^[239][249] Cost estimates for the off-site parking garages also came in at the end of May. The total cost was now estimated to be between $13.3 and $17.9 million ($86,800,000 to $116,900,000 in 2025 dollars) for 1,100 to 1,500 parking spaces. County commissioners declined to make further cuts to the garage, and said that they would consider a design change (building the garage on the hill, rather than under it) once actual bids were received.^[250]

By June 5, the cost of the Justice Center had risen again, to between $140 and $153 million ($914,000,000 to $998,800,000 in 2025 dollars).^[251]

In early June, legal counsel for the county discovered that the state law barring the county from seeking more money for a project had been repealed some years earlier, which meant that the commissioners could now legally issue councilmanic bonds to complete the Justice Center project.^[252] Funding for the complex's completion came from two sources: $5 million ($32,600,000 in 2025 dollars) in federal revenue-sharing funds, and $15 million ($97,900,000 in 2025 dollars) in councilmanic bonds. Although this would not permit the five redacted floors to be built, it would allow the county to finish the seven floors which had previously been left vacant. Space in the jail for 120 cells (allocated to the city), four elevators, five escalators, high-density insulation, and heating and cooling elements were all restored. Enough money was found to add an emergency generator and a communication system for the jail.^[253][am]

Continuation of construction

As the redesign controversy was playing out, construction on the Justice Center continued. Design work on the police headquarters finally ended in March 1974, 10 months after the last issues were worked out between the city and county. The structure's chief architect was Keith White of Richard L. Bowen & Associates. The nine-story building featured a 307-space underground parking garage,^[an] and connected to the court tower at the first, third, fourth, and fifth floors. The first floor contained space for the auto theft, community relations, lost and found, recruiting, and traffic departments. The second floor consisted of offices, and the third administrative services and records. Property locker space occupied a part of both the third and fourth floors, while the remainder of the fourth floor was given over to offices and research. The fifth floor connected with the court and jail, and had secure space for moving prisoners. Detective offices existed on the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth floors. About 7,775 square feet (722.3 m²) of the sixth floor was temporary detention space for 40 men and 10 women, while detectives shared the seventh floor with the crime laboratory and 4,000 square feet (370 m²) of mass detention space. Detectives shared the eighth floor with the juvenile, vice, and women squads as well as computing space. Half of the ninth floor was reserved for the police communication system, while the other half served as office space for the chief of police, assistant chief of police, the chief's staff, and the legal advisor. Some space on the ninth floor also served as a records room, conference room, and kitchen.^[255]

Construction began in mid August 1974 on the off-site garage. Final plans for the structure contemplated 1,100 parking spaces on three underground levels and one above-ground level, and a tunnel to connect the garage to the Justice Center. The total cost was $13.4 million ($87,500,000 in 2025 dollars).^[165]

The granite facade of the court tower began installation in August as well.^[256] The courts tower neared topping off in early September, and the superstructure of the jail began to rise.^[257]

Costs continued to rise, primarily due to inflation. The estimate for the police headquarters topped $23 million ($150,200,000 in 2025 dollars) in early June,^[253] the cost of the courts tower and jail rose to $125.6 million ($825,800,000 in 2025 dollars) in September (up $10 million [$65,300,000 in 2025 dollars] since June). County commissioners admitted they would need to issue up to $30 million ($195,900,000 in 2025 dollars) in councilmanic bonds, double the previous estimate. It was not clear how the city would pay for its share of the cost.^[258]

In early December, the county commissioners voted to issue the councilmanic bonds. The courts tower topped off about December 15, and half of its facade was up. Nine of the 11 stories of the jail had been erected. Inflation-driven costs continued to climb, however. The complex's total cost was now estimated to be more than $180 milllion ($1,175,100,000 in 2025 dollars) (of which the city would pay $25 million [$163,200,000 in 2025 dollars]). The police headquarters had contributed $4 million ($26,100,000 in 2025 dollars) in new costs alone, with its final estimate now at $27 million ($176,300,000 in 2025 dollars).^[259]

Off-site parking garage completion

Huntington Park parking garage opened on May 31, 1976, the first component of the Justice Center complex to be completed.^[286] The 1,123-space^[287] garage had one level above-ground, and three below-ground.^[286] The garage had entrances on W. 3rd Street and Lakeside Avenue, and pedestrian tunnels connected it to the Justice Center and to the old Cuyahoga County Courthouse. The total cost of construction was $13.3 million ($76,400,000 in 2025 dollars).^[287]

APCOA Parking managed the parking garage,^[287] which received a $200,000 ($1,100,000 in 2025 dollars) operating subsidy in its first year due to the delays in constructing the rest of the Justice Center.^[288]

Completion scandals

Two scandals emerged in 1976 as the Justice Center neared completion.

The first scandal concerned furniture for the courthouse tower. The county had failed to budget for the cost of new furniture for the complex, an error only discovered in 1975. This required court and sheriff's staff to use their old furniture (often very old, and in disrepair) in the new courthouse. Even though angry city officials demanded new furniture for the municipal courts, county officials offered to pay for new furniture only for elected officials, not their staff.^[47] Moreover, even though the Justice Center was of a Modernist design, the furniture elected judges chose was traditional in design, which clased with the building and its decor.^[289] A $1.06 million ($6,000,000 in 2025 dollars) contract^[47] was awarded to Taylor Chair Co. of Bedford, Ohio, which then supplied chairs for judicial chambers and the judge's bench in the courtroom according to specifications provided by the architects.^[290]

The second scandal involved an attempt to frame Justice Center contractors in an alleged kickback scheme. The scandal emerged on September 3, when county auditors discovered four checks^[291] allegedly written by Beer Pre-Cast Concrete (supplier of the precast jail cells) to four entities: Prindle, Patrick; Jones, Day, Reavis & Pogue, county commissioner Seth Taft's law firm; William B. Maynard, an engineer working on the Jusice Center complex; and Louis Roberts, an unidentified individual. Within days, law enforcement investigators determined the checks were fakes. They were legal checks (written to a granite contractor in Italy), which had been altered.^[292] Michael J. Leuzzi, former Cuyahoga County deputy auditor, claimed he received the checks from J. Willard Largent, George Voinovich's former administrative assistant; federal agents; and an architect working for Prindle, Patrick. With the frameup exposed, the scandal fizzled.^[293] No individual was ever identified as the instigator of the frameup.^[36]

June 1976: Police building completion

The Cleveland Division of Police Headquarters was completed in June 1975,^[47] and opened on June 10 with a ribbon-cutting ceremony.^[284]

September 1976: Courts tower completion

In May 1976, Turner Construction announced that court offices would open no later than the middle of October.^[47] The first tenants (the country prosecutor) began to move in on August 10.^[294][295]

The first court proceeding was held in the Justice Center on September 11, 1976,^[296] when Common Pleas Judge David T. Matia held a brief session (a hearing on a theft case, which resulted in probation for the defendant). The event angered the other city and county judges, because the session violated protocol and usurped the roles of senior judges.^[297]

Formal dedication ceremonies for the Justice Center were held the week beginning September 11, 1976. The first event was a speech by Jerald terHorst, President Gerald Ford's former press secretary (and who had just recieved the Conscience-in-Media Award from the American Society of Journalists and Authors). This was followed on September 15 with a speech by Senator Sam Ervin in the Galleria on the role of law in society.^[298][299] The senator's speech was followed by the presentation of a framed copy of the Magna Carta from British Consul-General Leslie Reid to Cuyahoga County Commission president Hugh Corrigan. On September 17, Chief Justice of the Ohio Supreme Court C. William O'Neill hosted a judicial conference^[298] on the press and courts,^[296] followed by a speech by Clarence M. Kelley, Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.^[at]

The Justice Center was formally opened during a late afternoon, 25-minute ceremony on September 17. Senator Robert Taft Jr. spoke, after which Associate Justice of the Supreme Court Potter Stewart dedicated the complex.^[298] Mayor Ralph Perk and Cleveland City Council President George Forbes boycotted the event after learning less than an hour before that there were no free passes for their entourages.^[301] Pouring rain accompanied the ceremony, during which the galleria roof leaked profusely.^[300][302] The Plain Dealer quoted one anonymous attendee: "130 million bucks—only in Cleveland".^[302]

The Justice Center opened for a single day of public tours on September 18.^[298] More than 12,000 people took the tour, several times the number estimated by planners, which led to extensive lines and delays during the day.^[303]

The rest of the court tower was ready for occupancy on October 11, 1976. The county courts moved into the structure first, followed by the municipal courts. The court tower was fully occupied by November 1.^[298]

January 1977: Sheriff/Jail building completion

Floors four through nine of the combined sheriff's headquarters/jail building were completed on August 2, 1976.^[47] In September, sheriff's department staff began a two-month training period in the building, learning how it functioned.^[298]

Administrative personnel were supposed to move into the structure in mid-October,^[47] but new federal health and safety regulations for local jails caused a three-and-a-half month delay in occupancy. County officials and contractors spent $328,750 ($1,900,000 in 2025 dollars) bringing the structure into compliance. (Another $120,000 ($700,000 in 2025 dollars) would be needed to bring the structure's shooting range into compliance.) Formal occupancy did not occur until January 31, 1977.^[294]

The first inmates (135 minimum security county prisoners) occupied cells in the new Justice Center jail on July 1, 1977.^[304] The last 290 county prisoners were transferred to the new jail on July 9,^[305] and the final 60 prisoners held by the city moved in on July 24.^[306]

Completion issues and problems

There were a number of completion issues and post-construction problems which plagued the new Justice Center. AT&T, the telecommunications contractor, refused to install any phone lines in the complex until all construction was finished. Telephone installation occurred in mid-September 1976, and involved ripping apart all the newly-laid carpeting to lay the lines.^[307] So much work remained undone that Prindle, Patrick and Turner Construction both requested that their contracts be extened to May 31, 1977 (when the work was expected to be completed). The total cost of the extensions, which were granted, was estimated at $219,628 ($1,200,000 in 2025 dollars).^{[308][au][36]}

The HVAC system also had problems. Although the county had issued a certificate of limited completion on July 21, 1976,^[285] by late November the system had still not been completely installed and contractors said they would need another two to three months to finish it. Temperatures inside the jail building ranged from a low of 37 degrees F to a high of 86 degrees F on the floor below.^[309] Contractors and county officials blamed an "imbalance" in the HVAC system, which would take a full year to fix.^[310] The problem was compounded by the glass-roofed galleria, which proved to leak heat at prodigious rates.^[311]

Plumbing and power failures at the complex caused problems as well. On November 30, 1976, a water pipe burst on the fifth floor of the CDP building, inundating the fifth, fourth, and third floors. ^[312] A power failure on January 19, 1977 caused water tanks to back up, flooding the first through fifth floors of the courthouse tower and doing at least $8,000 ($42,504 in 2025 dollars) in damage.^[313]

A number of contractors submitted large financial claims against the county in 1977. Beer Pre-Cast Concrete sought $1.36 million ($7,200,000 in 2025 dollars), subcontractor McDowell-Wellman Engineering sought $2.34 million ($12,400,000 in 2025 dollars), and Bethlehem Steel sought $147,467 ($800,000 in 2025 dollars). The firms claimed that a lack of construction coordination and planning and poor construction schedules led to delays which harmed them and forced them to incur much higher costs.^[314]

The first public social event held at the Justice Center was the Christ Child Society Annual Ball, held in the galleria on November 13, 1976.^[315]

Security problems

The glass windows proved to be a major security problem at the Justice Center. Inmates were breaking up to three exterior glass windows a week, with a cost of $343 ($1,822 in 2025 dollars) to replace a single window.^[316]{{Interior windows were not a problem. These were made of "penal glass", two hardened glass panes with a plastic sheet sandwiched between them.^[316]}} By the end of 1977, there were three unsuccessful and one successful escape attempts from the Justice Center jail, all of them involving breakage or removal of exterior glass windows.^[317] Once the glass was removed, smaller, skinny inmates could squeeze their bodies through the horizontal bars on the exterior window, which were spaced 4.5 inches (11 cm) apart.^[318] Jail authorities, told by the architects and planners that no one could slip through such a narrow opening, now believed that the horizontal bars were too widely spaced.^[317] The county spent $10,000 ($53,130 in 2025 dollars) to narrow the space between the bars to just 2.5 inches (6.4 cm).^[318] Officers at the prison nicknamed the facility the "Broken Bone Bastille", after escaping prisoners were found to have broken several bones after leaping to the ground during their escapes.^[319]

Another security problem became apparent in September when two Cuyahoga County assistant prosecutors were attacked in the galleria. The two attorneys had just finished successfully prosecuting a case, and taken the private judicial elevator to the ground floor. At that point, they were forced to exit through the public area of the galleria. Friends of the newly-convicted individual then assaulted both men in the lobby.^[320]

These security issues led the county to engage in an extensive study of security, maintenance, and custodial care at the Justice Center.^[321] In a preliminary report, the study's authors found that although the Justice Center would cost $5.7 million ($30,300,000 in 2025 dollars) to $8.2 million ($43,600,000 in 2025 dollars) a year to operated, only $4.7 million ($25,000,000 in 2025 dollars) had been budgeted in the first year for these costs. Moreover, the county commissioners were shocked to discover that no estimate of the Justice Center's operating costs had ever been conducted.^[48]

Portal

Isamu Noguchi's commission was approved in April 1976. Paid for by the Gund Foundation grant, it was intended for the plaza in front of the courthouse tower on Ontario Street.^[330] The piece, titled Portal, was inspired by the torii, a traditional Japanese gate in front of a shrine which marks the transition from the profane to the sacred. The color black was chosen for its somberness.^[334]

The Paterson Leitch Co. fabricated the work at its mill at 900 E. 69th Street in Cleveland.^[335] Steel pipe 48 inches (120 cm) in diameter was used to create the work.^[334] The work was so large, 10 smaller units were welded to create the work's three large ones. This required hoisting the entire work into the air as each piece was welded. Paterson Leitch engineers tied string to a model of the piece to determine where the balancing points were. Once welding was complete, the welds were sanded down and the entire work sandblasted to create a uniform surface. Noguchi had requested that the work be painted matte black. But metal paint would not weather well.^[335] After extensive discussion, Paterson Leitch used a black chlorinated rubber-based paint^[325] (similar to that used on submarines).^[335]

Portal was so large, it had to be assembled on-site.^[327] The work's actual location is atop the roof of the complex's underground parking garage.^[325] Work on assembling and anchoring the work to the plaza began on August 23,^[336] and was completed the following day.^[337]

Portal weighs 15 short tons (14 t)^[335][327] and is 36 feet (11 m) in height.^[327] Noguchi personally signed the work on August 18.^[327] For his work, Noguchi received a $30,000 ($200,000 in 2025 dollars) fee. Fabrication cost $70,000 ($400,000 in 2025 dollars),^[325] and installation cost $10,000 ($100,000 in 2025 dollars) (which the county paid for).^[338][294]

Cleveland Police Headquarters and the atrium are set much further back from Ontario Street than the Courts Tower. An open paved plaza occupies this space. Located at the northwestern end of this plaza is the Isamu Noguchi sculpture, Portal, donated by the Gund Foundation in 1977. The $100,000 ($500,000 in 2025 dollars), 36-foot (11 m) high sculpture was cast by the Patterson-Leitch Company of Cleveland. It is one of Isamu Noguchi's famous sculptures, and the most recognizable symbol of the Justice Center.^[339]

The public's reaction to Portal was extremely loud and highly negative.^[325][340] An anonymous elected official derisively said, "I thought it was part of the pipes in this building",^[327] while an anonymous county official called it "a pile of air-conditioning system ducts".^[341] One Cleveland art critic famously said Portal looked like "justice going down the drain".^[339] But artist John Clague highly praised it, and sculptor Clement Meadmore says it is Noguchi's best work.^[339] Sherman Lee, director of the Cleveland Museum of Art, said it was "one of the best monumental sculptures produced in the world since World War II".^[342]

Sentimental Scale and Wedge

Richard Hunt's commission was approved in April 1976. Paid for by the Cleveland Foundation grant, it was intended for the area in front of the jail entrance on W. 3rd Street.^[330] Titled Sentimental Scale and Wedge, Hunt first came across the phrase "sentimental scales" in the 1926 poem "I've Dreamed of You So Much" by Surrealist poet Robert Desnos. He conceived of the idea of juxtaposing the logical and precise scales of justice against the illogical and vague aspects of sentimentality.^[343] The upright part of the work is an allegorical image of Justice, while the horizontal portion on the ground nearby has more of a symbolic, architectural meaning.^[344]

Hunt and four assistants fabricated the work in Hunt's workshop over a period of six months. The work consists of two pieces, each of welded bronze, which were then polished and weatherproofed.^[343]

Hunt and his assistants installed Sentimental Scale and Wedge in front of the W. 3rd Street entrance of the Justice Center beginning October 4, 1977.^[344] It was dedicated on October 9.^[343] A Cleveland Foundation grant paid for the installation.^[338][345] The work consists of two pieces. Sentimental Scale stands upright in front of and slightly to one side of the entry doors, while Wedge is anchored to the floor to its right.^[343] Scale weighs 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg) and is 12 feet (3.7 m) in height. Wedge weighs 1,800 pounds (820 kg) and lies about 40 feet (12 m) away. For his work and materials, Hunt received an $80,000 ($500,000 in 2025 dollars) fee.^[344]

Three People on Four Benches

About 1978, the art committee paid artist George Segal $100,000 ($500,000 in 2025 dollars) for his sculptural piece Three People on Four Benches.^[331] The piece, finished in 1979, consisted of three seated bronze figures covered in white patina, seated on bronze benches. Segal cast three editions of this work,^[346] with the first edition going to the Justice Center.^[347][ax]

The 52-inch (130 cm) deep, 144-inch (370 cm) long, 58-inch (150 cm) high work^[346] was dedicated on June 12, 1981.^{[331][349][ay]}

Mondrian Series, Edges

Having commissioned two works from internationally-known artists, the arts committee sought in August 1976 to commission three sculptures (or two sculptures and a mural) from regionally-known artists. The open competition would be reduced to 10 finalists, chosen in October^[328] by a judging panel consisting of local architect Peter van Dijk, sculptor Richard Hunt, and Walker Art Center director Walter Friedman.^[351] The winning pieces could not cost more than $15,000 ($100,000 in 2025 dollars) each,^[352] and the winning artists would each receive a $3,000 ($16,974 in 2025 dollars) honorarium.^[353] Eighty artists submitted proposed works. The 10 finalists chosen on November 5 were: Ginna Brand, David Davis, Gene Kangas, Tom Kofron, Eric Lintala, Robert Mahaly, John Pearson, Christopher Pekoc, Athena Tacha, and Forbes Whiteside.^[354]

A sculpture by Kangas and a mural by Pearson were ultimately chosen in January 1977.^[352]

Pearson's mural was titled "Mondrian Linear Series". The 15-by-55-foot (4.6 by 16.8 m)^[352] mural was created by putting down an initial layer of acrylic paint on canvas, and then screen printing over the acrylic.^[355] Pearson, a professor of art at Oberlin College, is known as a "systems painter". He has devised a formula (or "system") which organizes color, lines, motifs, and shapes on a grid around a central idea.^[356] The work was intended to hang on the west wall of the galleria.^[353]

Kangas' sculpture was titled "Edges". It consists of six steel figures in silhouette.^[352] Five of the figures were placed to the right of the Pearson mural, in a line perpendicular to it. The floor in front of the mural was inlaid with tile to make it appear as if the silhouettes were casting shadows.^[352][353] Kangas, a professor of sculpture at Cleveland State University,^[357] wanted the silhouettes illuminated at night, but county officials said they could not afford to do so.^[353] The sculpture was installed on August 16, 1977.^[358]

Police lobby tapestries

The lobby of the Cleveland Division of Police has four tapestries designed by the architectural firm of Richard L. Bowen & Associates. Each 9-by-27-foot (2.7 by 8.2 m) tapestry depicts people and automobiles in various city scenes.^[284] The carpet tapestries were manufactured in Costa Rica.^[359] When and how they were commissioned, and their cost, is unclear.

The name

The term "Justice Center" was first used to describe this new criminal justice complex by the Cleveland Bar Association in a report on physical plant needs in the Cuyahoga County criminal justice system issued on July 31, 1968. The Plain Dealer used the term in a headline on August 1,^[361] and in a sentence on September 21.^[362]

The name "City-County Justice Center" was proposed as an alternative to "Justice Center". City and county officials could not agree on either name, so the name "Justice Center" was chosen after a coin toss conducted by city architect Richard L. Bowen.^[120]

Cost

The final construction cost of the 2,300,000-square-foot (210,000 m²)^[363] Justice Center was $135 million ($717,300,000 in 2025 dollars).^[364][36] That included^[298] the $17.7 million ($100,100,000 in 2025 dollars) police headquarters;^[365][ba] the $32 million ($170,000,000 in 2025 dollars) cost of the Corrections Center (the combined jail/sheriff's department);^[317] and the $85.3 million ($453,200,000 in 2025 dollars) courthouse tower.^[317] The city of Cleveland's share of the courthouse tower was $25 million ($141,400,000 in 2025 dollars).^[366] The federal government paid for $9.7 million ($63,300,000 in 2025 dollars) of the cost of design and land clearance.^[205][367]

After the interest on the various bonds were paid, the total cost of the Justice Center was $200 million ($1,131,600,000 in 2025 dollars).^[368]

An average of 500 people per day worked on the Justice Center, with 700 per day present at the site during peak construction periods. There were no fatalities and only five accidents at the construction site during the last 27 months of construction.^[369]

Courts Tower

The Courts Tower stands on the northern corner of the block, and was designed by Prindle, Patrick and Associates. The Brutalist 25-story structure^[363] is 420 feet (130 m) high^[370] and contains 44 court rooms^[370][359] and nine hearing rooms.^[370] Courtrooms are not shared by the judges.^[371] Adjacent to each courtroom are conference rooms, inmate holding cells, and jury rooms.^[371] The seating in each courtroom was custom-built by Naegle Manufacturing.^[372]

The courthouse is designed to keep the public and judicial staff separate, and to ensure that defendants and inmates are moved in secure ways. There are 16 elevators in the court tower, including separate elevators for inmates, judicial staff, and the public.^[298] Each judge has their own private toilet, to ensure security.^[47]

Two-thirds of the court tower is occupied by county courts and staff. The HVAC and mechanical systems are located on the fifth floor.^[284] Originally, city and county probation officers occupied the fourth floor,^[47] and city prosecutors, city and county court reporters, and city and county bailiffs occupied floors five through eight.^[47] The Cuyahoga County Prosecutor was located on the eighth and ninth floors.^[294]

The Courts Tower has been criticized by Steven Litt in The Plain Dealer as menacing, cold, and distracting.^[360]

Police Headquarters

Located on the eastern corner of the block is the Cleveland Police Headquarters Building,^[363] designed by Richard L. Bowen and Associates.^[363] The nine-story, granite and glass tower^[284] can accommodate more than 1,000 staff people.^[284][371]

The 235-space underground parking garage^[165] has a separate prisoner receiving area and an elevator reserved only for prisoner movement and transfer.^[284] A dining room, initially open to the public, was on the fourth floor and opened onto a terrace atop the galleria.^[371] The HVAC and mechanical systems are located on the fifth floor, along with secure prisoner-transfer skyways which connect the police headquarters to the fifth floors of the courthouse tower and the Corrections Center. The sixth floor has a temporary holding facility which can accommodate 40 male and 10 female suspects. The office of the chief of police is located in the northwest corner of the building's ninth floor, while the police communication center is located in the northeast corner.^[284]

The police headquarters building is designed to be highly flexible. Eighty percent of the interior space is divided by walls which can be moved or removed in order to configure the space according to need.^[284]

Corrections Center

On the western corner of the block is the Corrections Center, designed by Prindle, Patrick and Associates. The Correction Center is occupied by the Cuyahoga County Sheriff Department (lower floors) and by Jail I (upper floors).^[363] The 11-story^[181] structure houses the Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Department on the lower floors, and the Cuyahoga County Jail and Cleveland City Jail on floors six through eleven.^[360][373]

The Corrections Center has two below-ground levels.^[359] One consists of parking garage and prisoner receiving area (one for men, one for women,^[181] each with their own elevator^[359]), while the other contains a fitness cetner, lockerrooms, and lounges for sheriff's department staff. The first floor contains a lobby and offices for the Cuyahoga County sheriff and the civil division of the sheriff's department. As with the courthouse tower, there are separate elevators for the public and law enforcement officers and staff.^[181] There is also a nursery^[181] and play area on the first floor, where the children of visitors can partake in arts and crafts, read, and play while their parents or guardians visit inmates on the upper floors.^[374] The first floor mezzanine has a 150-seat auditorum. The second floor accommodates the prisoner processing center, and has cells for temporarily holding up to 79 inmates. A kitchen and staff dining room are also located on this floor. The third floor contains the building HVAC and mechanical systems,^[bb] as well as secure prisoner-transfer skyways connecting to the courthouse tower and police headquarters.^[bc] The fourth floor is the first floor of the Cuyahoga County Jail/Cleveland City Jail. It contains cells for 149 inmates, and extensive medical facilities. These include a delousing area,^[181] dental office,^[359][298] detoxification ward,^[298] an isolation ward,^[359] a psychiatric crisis stabilization ward,^[298] and offices for nurses, physicians, psychiatric counselors, and social workers.^[181] There is also a medical examination room, a medical treatment room,^[298] a secure pharmacy, and a surgical suite were minor surgery can occur.^[359] The fifth floor contains 112 cells for juvenile and female prisoners^[181] (with women separate from men).^[359] An inmate day room, dining room, exercise facilities, and family visiting rooms are also on this floor. (The exercise facilities consist of a half-court basketball court, small gymnasium, and ping pong tables.) The sixth floor contains eight "pods", each containing 24 cells for adult male inmates. The seventh and tenth floors contains four pods, housing 96 prisoners; two pods with rooms for visitors; a dining room pod; and a pod for conjugal visits. The eighth, ninth, and eleventh floors each have eight pods, with 24 cells per pod. The eleventh floor is the maximum security floor. Each door on this floor has multiple locks, which can be opened with the turn of a single key (a "gang lock"); no cells on this floor are latchable from the inside.^[181]

The design of the jails was considered advanced at the time of construction. Each cell is designed to house a single inmate,^[181][371] and each cell has its own bed, drinking fountain, toilet, and shower. A built-in system allows inmates to listen to music in their cell,^[181] and every cell (except for those in maximum security) can be latched from the inside.^[181][371] The cells of each pod are built along the exterior walls, to provide inmates with as much natural light as possible.^[181][360] The windows in each cell are unbarred, and use a system of closely-spaced louvers to prevent escape.^{[316][359][bd]} Each pod also has an interior dayroom^[181][371] and classroom, and its own janitorial closet.^[181] Press reports list the number of cells per pod at either 23^[371][360] or 24.^[181] Each pod was prefabricated off-site from reinforced concerete.^[298] The pods are arranged in the building to keep first-time offenders separate from repeat offenders, women separate from men, and juvenils separate from adults.^[298]

The Corrections Center also contains a library for inmate use^[181][359] on the second floor. Originally designed to be just 250 square feet (23 m²) in size (40 percent smaller than the old jail library), the Cuyahoga County Jail came under a court order during construction requiring it to improve library access. A "teacher preparation room" on the second floor was transformed into the library after extensive penal glass was installed.^[375]

Just how many prisoners the Corrections Center can hold, and how many cells are assigned to city use, is an issue of some dispute. In 1977, Jail I was reported to be capable of holding 1,300 inmates (with 79 of these beds meant to be temporary).^[181] A 1995 report, however, pegged this number at 956 inmates.^[360] Two 1976 reports said Jail I could hold just 877 prisoners,^[47][359] which included 120 city inmates.^[47] But one 1977 report said the jail had room for 900 inmates (with 123 of these cells for use by city prisoners),^[304] while another report at about the same time claimed the jail could hold just 770 inmates (with only 50 cells for use by the city).^[376]

A computer system tracks the location of every inmate at the Justice Center, no matter which building they are in.^[298] The use of a stairwell anywhere in the Corrections Center triggers a silent alarm.^[298]

Galleria

A four-story atrium exists in the center of the block, and serves as the secure public entry to the complex.^[363] The atrium helps resolve ground-level changes at the site, and connects the Courts Tower, Police Headquarters, and Correction Center (Jail I) structures internally. The north, south, and east walls of the atrium are glass curtain walls. An enclosed, elevated walkway connects Jail I and Jail II, while an enclosed walkway connects Cleveland Police Headquarters with Jail II.

Ficus nitido trees Strassmeyer Mary You, Too, Can Mingle With Town's Chic Plain Dealer (Published as SUNDAY PLAIN DEALER) - January 30, 1977Browse Issues Page: D3

galleria turning out to be very popular Condon George E. Of Nuts and Squirrels Plain Dealer (Published as THE PLAIN DEALER) - January 12, 1977Browse Issues Page: 17

Lakeside Garage

lakeside: 1128 spaces closer to breaking even with intrest, cost was 29.5m Pederson Terry Break-Even Point A Little Closer For Downtown Garages Plain Dealer (Published as SUNDAY PLAIN DEALER) - April 3, 1977Browse Issues Page: G1, G5

Renovations

The granite veneer of the Courts Tower, Police Headquarters, and Corrections Center underwent a $3.2 million ($67,600,000 in 2025 dollars) refurbishment in 1995.^[360]

A $13 million ($25,100,000 in 2025 dollars) renovation of the Corrections Center and Jail II was completed in 1999.^[377] The renovations increased the capacity of Jail I to 1,749 beds.^[378]