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Comments

  • An important principal: Venn diagram situations - articles can, and sometimes should overlap.

Article of concern

Levant

Iron Age Kingdoms in the southern Levant

Regions/Countries

History of Ancient Israel

  • Frevel, C. (2023). History of Ancient Israel. Archaeology and Biblical Studies. Atlanta: SBL. ISBN 978-1628375138.
  • Williamson, H. G. M., ed. (2007). Understanding the History of Ancient Israel. Oxford: The British Academy. ISBN 978-0197264010.

Sub-Regions

Early Bronze Age Southern Levant

Periods: Early Bronze Age IA, Early Bronze Age IB, Early Bronze Age II, Early Bronze Age III

Bibliography

General

  • Chesson, Meredith S. (2019). "The Southern Levant During the Early Bronze Age I–III". In Yasur-Landau, Assaf; Cline, Eric H.; Rowan, Yorke M. (eds.). The Social Archaeology of the Levant: From Prehistory to the Present. Cambridge University. pp. 163–182. ISBN 9781107156685.
  • Greenberg, Raphael (2019). "Early Bronze Age". In Faust, Avraham; Katz, Hayah (eds.). Archaeology of the Land of Israel: From the Neolithic to Alexander the Great (in Hebrew). Vol. 1. Ra'anana: Lamda. pp. 165–258. ISBN 978-965-06-1594-9.
  • Greenberg, Raphael (2014). "Introduction to the Levant during the Early Bronze Age". In Killebrew, Ann E.; Steiner, Margreet L. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of the archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. Oxford University. pp. 269–277. ISBN 978-0-19-921297-2.
  • Greenberg, Raphael (2019). The Archaeology of the Bronze Age Levant: From Urban Origins to the Demise of City-States, 3700-1000 ВСЕ. Cambridge University. ISBN 9781107111462.
  • de Miroschedji, Pierre (2014). "The southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Early Bronze Age". In Killebrew, Ann E.; Steiner, Margreet L. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of the archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. Oxford University. pp. 307–329. ISBN 978-0-19-921297-2.
  • Richard, Suzanne (2014). "The southern Levant (Transjordan) during the Early Bronze Age". In Killebrew, Ann E.; Steiner, Margreet L. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of the archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. Oxford University. pp. 330–352. ISBN 978-0-19-921297-2.

Intermediate Bronze Age Southern Levant

  • Greenberg, Raphael (2019). The Archaeology of the Bronze Age Levant: From Urban Origins to the Demise of City-States, 3700-1000 ВСЕ. Cambridge University. ISBN 9781107111462.
  • Prag, Kay (2014). "The southern Levant during the Intermediate Bronze Age". In Killebrew, Ann E.; Steiner, Margreet L. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of the archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. Oxford University. pp. 388–402. ISBN 978-0-19-921297-2.

Middle Bronze Age Southern Levant

Middle Bronze Age I, Middle Bronze Age II, Middle Bronze Age III

Look for things by Assaf Yasur-Landau.

  • Bourke, S. J. (2014). "The southern Levant (Transjordan) during the Middle Bronze Age". In Killebrew, Ann E.; Steiner, Margreet L. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of the archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. Oxford University. pp. 465–481. ISBN 978-0-19-921297-2.
  • Burke, A. A. (2008). “Walled Up to Heaven”: The Evolution of Middle Bronze Age Fortification Strategies in the Levant. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 2008004947. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  • Burke, A. A. (2014). "Introduction to the Levant during the Middle Bronze Age". In Killebrew, Ann E.; Steiner, Margreet L. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of the archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. Oxford University. pp. 403–413. ISBN 978-0-19-921297-2.
  • Cohen, S. L. (2014). "The southern Levant (Cisjordan) during the Middle Bronze Age". In Killebrew, Ann E.; Steiner, Margreet L. (eds.). The Oxford handbook of the archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE. Oxford University. pp. 451–464. ISBN 978-0-19-921297-2.
  • Greenberg, R. (2019). The Archaeology of the Bronze Age Levant: From Urban Origins to the Demise of City-States, 3700-1000 ВСЕ. Cambridge University. ISBN 9781107111462.

Late Bronze Age Southern Levant

Late Bronze Age I, Late Bronze Age II, Late Bronze Age III

  • Bunimovitz, s. (1992). "תיחום ומינוח ראשית תקופת הברונזה המאוחרת" [The Beginning of the Late Bronze Age in Palestine]. Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies. 23: 21–25. JSTOR 23623570.
  • Bunimovitz, S. (1998). "On the Edge of Empires - Late Bronze Age (1500 - 1200 BCE)". In Levy, T. E. (ed.). The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land. London and Washington: Cassell. ISBN 978-0718501655.
  • Bunimovitz, S. (2019). "Late Bronze Age". In Faust, Avraham; Katz, Hayah (eds.). Archaeology of the Land of Israel: From the Neolithic to Alexander the Great (in Hebrew). Vol. 1. Ra'anana: Lamda. pp. 165–258. ISBN 978-965-06-1594-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  • Greenberg, Raphael (2019). The Archaeology of the Bronze Age Levant: From Urban Origins to the Demise of City-States, 3700-1000 ВСЕ. Cambridge University. ISBN 9781107111462.
  • Na'aman, N. (1982). "ארץ ישראל בתקופה הכנענית: תקופת הברונזה התיכונה ותקופת הברונזה המאוחרת (1200 — 2000 לפני הספירה בקירוב)" [Eretz-Israel in the Canaanite Period: The Middle and Late Bronze Age periods (c. 2000-1200 BCE)]. In Eph'al, Israel (ed.). The History of Eretz Israel: Introductions: The Early Periods. Jerusalem: Keter.

Iron Age Southern Levant

Israel Finkelstein, Amihai Mazar, Oded Lipschits, Ido Koch, Omer Sergi, Ayelet Gilboa, Wiliam Dever, Aren Maeir, Lawrance Stager, Seymour Gitin, Ann E. Killebrew, Amos Kloner, Yehiel Zelinger, Eric M. Meyers, Ephraim Stern, Ron E. Tappy, Nadav Na'aman, Ze'ev Meshel,

Is this an outline article, with separate articles for the different regions? Israel, Judah, Philistines, Phoenicia, Moab, Edom, Ammon etc.? A good place to outline the divisions: Iron Age I, Iron Age IIA early and late, Iron Age IIB, Iron Age III.

Does the Assyrian period merit another article? Does Iron Age I needs to be its own article?

  • Joffe, A. H. (2002). "The Rise of Secondary States in the Iron Age Levant". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 45 (4): 425–467. JSTOR 3632872.
  • Koch, I.; Lipschits, O.; Sergi, O., eds. (2023). From Nomadism to Monarchy? Revisiting the Early Iron Age Southern Levant. Tel Aviv University. ISBN 9781646022618.
  • Master, D. M. (2014). "Economy and Exchange in the Iron Age Kingdoms of the Southern Levant". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 327: 81–97. doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.372.0081.

Southern Levant in the Persian Period (539–332 BCE)

The Persian period in the Southern Levant is a historical and archaeological period when the region was part of the Achaemenid Empire (Known also as the "Persian Empire"). Historically, this period began with the conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in by Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE, which is considered as the end of the Iron Age in the Levant. It lasted for two centuries until Alexander the Great captured the Levant in 332 BCE. Archaeologically, the transition from Iron II to Persian, and from Persian to Hellenistic periods is more elusive, with both change and continuity.[1]

The Persian Empire was divided into twenty major administrative divisions called Satrapies, each ruled by a Satrap. The Southern Levant was part of the fifth Satrapy, called Eber-Nari ("beyond the River", referring to the Euphrates). This Satrapy was divided into ten or more smaller provinces including Sidon, Samaria, Yehud Medinata, Idumea, Ashdod, Galilee, Karnaim, Hauran, Damascus, Ammon, and Moab.[2]

Bibliography

  • Betlyon, J. W. (2005). "A People Transformed Palestine in the Persian Period". Near Eastern Archaeology. 68 (1/2). JSTOR 25067592.
  • Carter, C. E. (1999). The Emergence of Yehud in the Persian Period: A Social and Demographic Study. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 1-84127-012-1.
  • Carter, C. E. (2003). "Syria–Palestine in the Persian Period". In Richard, S. (ed.). Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. pp. 398–412. ISBN 1-57506-083-3.
  • Eph'al, I. (1998). "Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources". Israel Exploration Journal. 48 (1/2): 106–119. JSTOR 27926503.
  • Meyers, E. M.; Chancey, M. A. (2012). "The Persian Period and the Transition to Hellenism". Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: Volume III. Yale University. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5.
  • Stern, E. (2001). Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: The Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Periods 732-332 BCE. United States of America: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-300-14057-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  • Stern, E.; Tadmor, H. (1998). "Persia's Rule (538 - 332 BCE)". In Eph'al, I. (ed.). ההיסטוריה של ארץ-ישראל - ישראל ויהודה בתקופת המקרא (המאה השתים עשרה - 332 לפני הספירה) [The History of Eretz Israel: Israel and Judah in the Biblical Period] (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Keter. pp. 225–308.
  • Tal, O. (2019). "The Persian Period". In Faust, A.; Katz, H. (eds.). מבוא לארכיאולוגיה של ארץ-ישראל: משלהי תקופת האבן ועד כיבושי אלכנסדר [Archaeology of the Land of Israel: From the Neolithic to Alexander the Great] (in Hebrew). Ra'anana: Lamda. pp. 325–411. ISBN 978-965-06-1603-8.
  • Tuell, S. S. (1991). "The Southern and Eastern Borders of Abar-Nahara". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 284: 51–57. JSTOR 1357193.

Hellenistic Southern Levant

Goes beyond the Hasmonean period and the extent of the Hasmoneans chronologically and spatially.

Note that Andrea Berlin uses Palestine in the 90s, and then moves to southern Levant in contemporary work. Must check this.

  • Meyers, E. M.; Chancey, M. A. (2012). "The Advent of Hellenism Under the Greek Kingdoms and the Hasmoneans (332–37 B.C.E.)". Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: Volume III. Yale University. pp. 11–49. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5.
  • Tal, O. (2006–2007). הארכיאולוגיה של ארץ ישראל בתקופה ההלניסטית: בין מסורת לחידוש [The Archaeology of Hellenistic Palestine: Between Tradition and Renewal] (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Bialik Institute. ISBN 965-342-919-1.

Roman Judaea and Palaestina

Encompass: Early years between Pompey's conquest in 63 BCE to the rise of the Herodian kingdom, then Herodian tetrarchy, Judaea (Roman province), Syria Palaestina, until 324 BCE.

  • Bar, D. (2004). "Population, Settlement and Economy in Late Roman and Byzantine Palestine (70-641 AD)". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 67 (3): 307–320. JSTOR 4145797.
  • Baras, Z.; Safrai, S.; Stern, M.; Tsafrir, Y., eds. (1982). Eretz Israel: From the Destruction of the Second Temple to the Muslim Conquest: Volume One: Political, Social and Cultural History (in Hebrew). Vol. 1. Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi.
  • Cimadomo, P. (2019). The Southern Levant During the First Centuries of Roman Rule (64 BCE-135 CE). Oxford: Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-78925-238-5.
  • Hall, J. H. (1996–97). "The Roman Province of Judea: A Historical Overview". Brigham Young University Studies. 36 (3): 319–336. JSTOR 43044136.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  • Klein, E. (2024). יהודה משממה תקום : מבט ארכאולוגי על ארץ יהודה בתקופה הרומית המאוחרת [From Barren Land Judea Shall Rise: An Archaeological Perspective of the Land of Judea during the Late Roman Period] (in Hebrew). Ariel University. ISBN 978-965-7632-45-1.
  • Meyers, E. M.; Chancey, M. A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: Volume III. Yale University. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5.
  • Tsafrir, Y. (1984). Eretz Israel: From the Destruction of the Second Temple to the Islamic Conquest: Volume Two: The Archaeological and Artistic Finds (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi. ISBN 965-217-006-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

Byzantine Palestine

Christianity

The consecration of Palestine as the Holy Land took place after Constantine established his rule over the eastern half of the empire in 324 CE. In 325 CE Constantine arranged the First Council of Nicaea in which bishops from empire gathered to achieve a consensus on theological matters. Among the participants were Macarius of Jerusalem and Eusebius of Caesarea. The see of Jerusalem received a special honor in that meeting. In 326 CE, Constantine's mother Helena made pilgrimage to the Holy Land and supported Macarius' construction projects in Jerusalem. The first one was the Church of the Anastasis (Holy Sepulcher) at the supposed location of Jesus' burial, under the Temple of Aphrodite. This church became the center of Chirstian Jerusalem. Other churches constructed in that period include the Church of Eleona on Mount of Olives Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of Mamre in Hebron. The latter was constructed on Constantine's advice, in order to halt the syncretic cult of the site which was shared by Christian, Jews and Polytheists. In the Galilee, Joseph of Tiberias, a Christian converted from Judaism, erected churches in Tiberias, Sepphoris, Nazareth and Capernaum which had a Jewish majority.[3]

Historical background

Byzantine Emperors
Constantine I 306 – 337
Constantius II 337 – 361
Julian 361 – 363
Jovian 363 – 364
Valentinian I 364 – 375
Valens 364 – 378
Procopius 365 – 366
Theodosius I 379 – 395
Arcadius 395 – 408
Theodosius II 408 – 450
Marcian 450 – 457
Leo I 457 – 474
Leo II 474
Zeno 474 – 475
Basiliscus 475 – 476
Zeno 476 – 491
Anastasius I 491 – 518
Justin I 518 – 527
Justinian I 527 – 565
Justin II 565 – 578
Tiberius II Constantine 578 – 582
Maurice 582 – 602
Phocas 602 – 610
Heraclius 610 – 641

The transition from a unified polytheistic Roman Empire to a divided Christian Byzantine Empire was gradual and took place around the 4th century. The political precss which characterized the Byzantine period began after the end of the Crisis of the Third Century (235–285), when the Roman Empire was subjected to civil wars, foreign invasions and plagues, resulting in demographic and economic decline and instability. The rise of emperor Diocletian in 284 marks the end of this crisis. After defeating numerous rivals and foreign invasions, he initiated a series of reforms which stabilized the empire at the expense of hampering the freedom of Roman subjects. One of his reforms is the Tetrarchy, a new system of power where the rule of the empire was spread between four co-emperors. Diocletian's rule is also marked by his persecution of Christians, beginning in 303 and ending with the Edict of Serdica (311) by Galerius and the Edict of Milan (313) by Licinius and Constantine I. After Diocletian's abdication in 305 the empire fell again to civil war and in 324 Constantine the Great emerged victorious, becoming the first Christian emperor. During his rule he subsidized Christian clerks and established many churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, following the visit of his mother Helena in 325. Palestine thus turned from a peripheral province into a land of imperial prominence. As the spiritual center of the new official religions of the empire, it became as the "Holy Land".[4]

The stabilizing of the empire and the direct imperial investment has led to a period of growth and prosperity in Palestine during the 4th century. The parker source is quite anemic

History of Research

See also: Archaeology of Israel

In archaeology, throughout most of the history of research, the Byzantine period was neglected because it fell out of the scope of both Biblical archaeology and Classical archaeology, while Islamic archaeologist referred to it only as a predecessor of their period of interest. Palestine was also overlooked by archaeologists of the Byzantine Empire, who tended to focus mostly on the core of the empire in Anatolia and the Balkans. Early research in the region have had made numerous discoveries, but the Byzantine period was not a primary subject of study until the end of World War II.[5]

Early Islamic Palestine

  • Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634-1099. Cambridge University. ISBN 0-521-40437-1.
  • Levy-Rubin, M. (2006). "The Influence of the Muslim Conquest on the Settlement Pattern of Palestine during the Early Muslim Period". Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv (in Hebrew). 121: 53–78. JSTOR 23407269.

Kingdom of Jerusalem

Mamluk period

How to call this period? Mamluk Palestine? It ain't like in the Byzantine or Early Islamic times, when this was the official name of the country. Was there even a geographic entity like that? Or was it divided between smaller provinces? Here there's a good map Showing it was part of the province of Syria.

  • Reuven, Amitai (2018). "Political and Civilian Elites in Mamluk Palestine (1260–1516). Some Preliminary Comments". In Drews, Wolfram (ed.). Die Interaktion von Herrschern und Eliten in imperialen Ordnungen des Mittelalters. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783110574128-007.

Ottoman Palestine

Under Ottoman Syria? Is this the place where this would merge with History of Palestine?

Site speific

Jerusalem

Jaffa

Lod Diospolis

  • Shavit, A. (2022). The Devil Went Down to Diospolis: The Community Archaeology Project in Lod: Summary up to Now (in Hebrew). Lod: Israeli Institute of Archaeology. ISBN 978-965-599-841-2.

Ramla

  • Petersen, A.; Pringle, D. (eds.). Ramla: City of Muslim Palestine, 715-1917: Studies in History, Archaeology and Architecture. Oxford: Archaeopress. p. 2021. ISBN 978-1789697766.

Yehud

References

Bibliography

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