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India Music

Sykes, Jim (2021). "The Music of South Asia". In Rommen, Timothy; Nettl, Bruno (eds.). Excursions in World Music (8th ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-35936-9.
The first six editions were published by Pearson, starting in 2001; the 7th and 8th have been published by Routledge. It has subsections, among others, on:

India lead

Version final-draft-f of the lead

India (official name: the Republic of India;^[1] Hindi: Bhārat Gaṇarājya) is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;^[a] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.

Modern humans had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa by 55,000 years ago.^[2]^[3]^[4] Their long occupation, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made India second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.^[5] Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus river basin 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus valley civilisation of the third millennium BCE.^[6]^[7] By 1500 BCE, an old form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, had diffused into India from the northwest, appearing as the poetic language of the Vedas, and recording the dawning of Hinduism in India.^[8]^[9]^[10] The Dravidian languages of India were supplanted in the north.^[11]^[12] By 400 BCE, stratification and exclusion by caste had emerged within Hinduism,^[13] and Buddhism and Jainism arisen, both proclaiming social orders independent of heredity.^[14] Political consolidations gave rise to the loose-knit Maurya and Gupta empires, ^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18] their collective time span suffused with wide-ranging creativity,^[19]^[20] but also with diminishing rights of women.^[21]^[22]^[23] The Middle kingdoms of south India exported Dravidian-languages scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms of southeast Asia.^[24]^[25]

In India's early medieval era, Jews, Zoroastrians, Christians and Muslims settled on its southern coast, diversifying the local cultures.^[26] ^[27]^[28] Muslim armies from Central Asia intermittently overran India's northern plains,^[29]^[30] eventually establishing the Delhi sultanate.^[31]^[32] The Vijayanagara Empire created a long-lasting elite Hindu culture in south India.^[33] In the Punjab, Sikhism emerged, rejecting institutionalized religion.^[34] The Mughal empire, founded in 1525, ushered in two centuries of relative peace,^[35] leaving a legacy of luminous architecture.^[36] Gradually expanding rule of the British East India Company followed, turning India into a colonial economy.^[37]^[38] British Crown rule began in 1858. Although the rights promised to Indians were granted reluctantly,^[39]^[40] ideas of education, modernity and the public life took root.^[41] A pioneering and influential nationalist movement emerged,^[42] which was noted for nonviolent resistance and led India to its independence in 1947.

India is a secular federal republic governed in a democratic parliamentary system, and administered in 29 states and seven union territories. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society. India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to 1 billion 211 million in 2011.^[43] During the same time, its nominal per capita income, increased from $64 annually to $2,041, its literacy rate from 16.6% to 74%. From being a comparatively destitute country in 1951,^[44] India has become a fast-growing major economy, a global hub for software services, with an expanding middle class.^[45] It has substantially reduced its rates of poverty, though at the same time increasing economic inequality.^[46]. India is is a nuclear weapons state, which ranks high in military expenditure. It has an advanced space program which includes several moon missions. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.^[47] Yet India battles gender inequality, child malnutrition,^[48] and rising levels of air pollution.^[49] Four regions from India are included among the world's 34 threatened biodiversity hotspots.^[50] India's forest cover comprises 21.4% of its land area.^[51] Among these forests, and elsewhere, are the protected habitats that support the high diversity of India's wildlife.

Himalayan geology

The Indus River in the foreground and the Nanga Parbat peak, the western anchor of the Himalayas, far in the background, a little faint but towering well above the cloud layer^[b]

Tectonics, the recurring physical changes that affect the arrangement of the Earth's crust, and plate tectonics, the movement of large regions of the Earth's crust in the manner of planar rigid bodies, are key to understanding the formation of the Himalayas.^[52] The Earth's crust rests directly on its mantle. Tectonic plates, comprising the crust and the upper portions of their underlying mantle, are moved around by convection in the asthenosphere. The oceanic crust, found beneath oceans, is, on average, 7 km thick. It is created from upwelling magma at mid-ocean ridges and predominantly consists of basalt, the principal igneous rock on Earth. In contrast, the continental crust underlying dry land has an average thickness of 35 km and is rich in silica, which is less dense than basalt.^[53] It makes the continental tectonic plates more buoyant than the oceanic.^[52]

India's defining geologic processes, which began 70 million years ago, had involved India rifting, or splitting away, from Gondwana, and the Indian continental plate along with the Neo-Tethys oceanic plate above it jointly moving northward.^[52] As these eventually reached the Eurasian plate, the less buoyant oceanic plate subducted, or slid under Eurasia and was carried into the deeper asthenosphere. In contrast, the Indian continental plate was obstructed because of its thickness and buoyancy. The lateral compression generated by the obstruction caused the plate to be sheared horizontally. Its lower crust and mantle slid under, but one layer of the upper crust piled up in sheets (called nappes) ahead of the subduction zone.^[54] Geophysicist Peter Molnar noted that most of the Himalayas are "slices of rock that once were the top part of India's crust."^[55] This is the process of mountain building, or orogeny, in the Himalayas.

Before the orogeny, the Eurasian coastline had been similar to today's Central Andes.^[56] Along such coastlines, the adjoining oceanic plate subducts and erupts as volcanoes. Magma, which eventually crystallizes into granite, rises into the Earth's crust below the active volcanoes but not to the surface.^[56] However, when India's continental plate pushed against Eurasia, not only did a part of the upper crust fold in nappes, but another stiffer part began to push against (or drag) Eurasia's ancient volcanic mountains farther north.^[56] As a result, the crust of this formerly coastal region shortened under compression and thickened.^[56] Isostatic equilibrium, or the balance between the gravitational force pulling down on the crust and the force of buoyancy pushing up from the mantle, gives the Tibetan Plateau its notable thickness and altitude.^[56]

The Indian plate was not the only landmass that had been a part of Gondwana, and subsequently rifted, drifting northward toward Eurasia.^[57] Before the India-Eurasia collision in Middle Paleocene (60 Mya) and subsequent Himalayan orogeny, two other landmasses, the Qiangtang terrane and Lhasa terrane,^[c] had drifted up from Gondwana.^[57] Qiangtang, a geological region in what is today northern Tibet, had done so in Late Triassic (237–201 Mya).^[57] The Lhasa terrane collided with the southern boundary of the Qiangtang in the Early Cretaceous (145–100 Mya).^[57] The collision caused the lithospheric mantle of the Lhasa terrane to thicken and shorten, forming a barrier that later prevented the Indian lithosphere from fully subducting under Tibet. The suture zones, or remains of the subduction zone and the terranes that are joined, are found in the Tibetan plateau.^[57] The Qiantang and Lhasa terranes were part of the string of microcontinents Cimmeria, today constituting parts of Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, China, Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia, which had rifted from Gondwana earlier, closing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean above them and opening the Neo-Tethys Ocean between them and Gondwana, eventually colliding with Eurasia, and creating the Cimmerian Orogeny.^[59]

The collision of India with Eurasia closed the Neo-Tethys Ocean.^[59] The suture zone (in this instance, the remnants of the Neo-Tethys subduction zone pinched between the two continental crusts), which marks India's welding to Eurasia, is called the Indus-Yarlung suture zone.^[59] It lies north of the Himalayas. The headwaters of the Indus River and the Yarlung Tsangpo (later in its course, the Brahmaputra) flow along this suture zone.^[59] These two Eurasian rivers, whose courses were continually diverted by the rising Himalayas, define the western and eastern limits, respectively, of the Himalayan mountain range.^[59]

During the India-Eurasia collision, two elongated protrusions located on either side of the northern border of the Indian continent generated areas of extreme deformation. A point where mountain ranges with different directions of extension, and thus formed by tectonic forces at varying angles, converge is called a syntaxis (Greek: convergence).^[57] The two syntaxes, Nanga Parbat and Namche Barwa, on the northwestern and northeastern corners of the Indian continent, respectively, are characterized by the quick upward movement of land or rocks that were once deeply buried and significantly altered by extreme heat and pressure.^[57] Geologists have estimated the rate of uplift of these rocks to be 7 millimetres (0.28 in) per year, or 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) per million years.^[57] The protruding regions have some of the highest mountain peaks at 8,125 metres (26,657 ft) and 7,756 metres (25,446 ft), respectively.^[57] The regions also have the greatest topographical relief in the interior of a continent, approximately 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) over a horizontal distance of 20–30 kilometres (12–19 mi).^[57] Nanga Parbat has a narrow, anticline, or arch-shaped fold whose crest dips sharply to the north, perpendicular to the general direction along which the Himalayas extend.^[57] The Indus and Yarlung Tsangpo, which originally emptied into the New-Tethys, now bend around the Nanga Parbat and Namche Barwa, respectively, to eventually empty into the Indian Ocean.

The Himalayan mountain range consists of three sub-ranges: (1) the Higher- or "Tethys" Himalayas, (2) the Lesser Himalayas, and (3) the Siwaliks. The nappes—large, stacked sheets of rock—found in the Tethys Himalayan mountain range, are primarily composed of sedimentary rocks, such as limestone formed from the accumulation and compression of sediments like sand, mud, and shells deposited in the Neo-Tethys seabed during the Paleogene" (66 Mya–23 Mya).^[57] Below the sedimentary rocks in the Higher and Lesser Himalayas is a bottom layer, or basement, composed of metamorphic rock formed much earlier during the Pan-African-Cadomian orogeny between 650 Mya and 550 Mya.^[57] The lowest subrange, the Siwaliks, represents the sedimentary rock deposits washed off the rising Himalayas in a foreland basin, a low-lying crustal region, at their foot.^[57] It primarily consists of sandstones, shales, and conglomerates formed during the Neogene period (23 Mya to 2.6 Mya).

Christmas card

Season's Greetings

(He) enjoyed himself very much and explained a lot of things to (us), and helped us to put away the Dictionary when we had done with it.
When he took up his hat to go, he gave one long look round the library. Then he turned ... (and Saxon took advantage of this to wag his way in and join the party), and said, "It's a rare privilege, the free entry of a book chamber like this. I'm hoping ... that you are not insensible of it."

(Text on page 17 illustrated in the frontispiece in Juliana Horatia Ewing's Mary's Meadow and Other Tales of Fields and Flowers, illustrated by Mary Wheelhouse, London: G. Bell and Sons, 1915.)

Fowler&fowler «Talk» 04:03, 23 December 2024 (UTC)

Notes

[a]
The Government of India also regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all of Kashmir to be part of India. However, this is disputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. Source: "Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
[b]
as seen from a plane approximately above the historic Sawal Dher village, in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
[c]
Terrane: "A far traveled crustal block accreted to a continent. Due to its remote origin, the terrane shows a different geological evolution compared to adjacent parts of the continent."^[58]

References

[1]
–The Essential Desk Reference, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 76, ISBN 978-0-19-512873-4 "Official name: Republic of India.";
–John Da Graça (2017), Heads of State and Government, London: Macmillian, pp. 421–, ISBN 978-1-349-65771-1 "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)";
–Graham Rhind (2017), Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries, Taylor & Francis, pp. 302–, ISBN 978-1-351-93326-1 "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat.";
–Bradnock, Robert W. (2015), The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs, Routledge, pp. 108–, ISBN 978-1-317-40511-5 "Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya";
–Penguin Compact Atlas of the World, Penguin, 2012, pp. 140–, ISBN 978-0-7566-9859-1 "Official name: Republic of India";
–Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Merriam-Webster, 1997, pp. 515–516, ISBN 978-0-87779-546-9 "Officially, Republic of India";
–Complete Atlas of the World, 3rd Edition: The Definitive View of the Earth, DK Publishing, 2016, pp. 54–, ISBN 978-1-4654-5528-4 "Official name: Republic of India";
–Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013, CQ Press, 10 May 2013, pp. 726–, ISBN 978-1-4522-9937-2 "India (Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya)"
[2]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 1, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present. (page 1)"
[3]
Michael D. Petraglia; Bridget Allchin (22 May 2007). The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4020-5562-1. Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."
[4]
Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 23, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago (page 23)"
[5]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 28, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent’s people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa’s population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of ‘founder’ events in the subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of ‘original’ individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent’s people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy."
[6]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 4-5, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "Anyhow, by 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan. And, over the next 2,000 years, the practice of farming slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley."
[7]
Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 33, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well."
[8]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, pp. 14–15, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. ... It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as ‘Arya’—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence."
[9]
Robb, Peter (2011), A History of India, Macmillan, pp. 46–, ISBN 978-0-230-34549-2 Quote: "The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas."
[10]
Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, p. 19, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6 Quote: " In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence ‘panch’ and ‘ab’) draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva)."
[11]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 25, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "There are more than 300 functioning languages in the Indian subcontinent today. However, the region’s linguistic geography is dominated by the division between Indo-Aryan languages, which are spoken throughout most of the north and the west, and Dravidian languages, which are spoken throughout parts of the east and most of the south. Indo-Aryan tongues constitute a branch of the Indo-European language group. They include Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu, Gujarati, Marathi, and Bengali. In large part, these languages evolved from a predecessor or early form of Sanskrit. Dravidian tongues include the four main southern languages, i.e. Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, and Tamil. Dravidian languages were once spoken throughout much of the subcontinent.
[12]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 16, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "In the next millennium, swathes of the upper Ganges river valley were deforested for agriculture, In any event, the settlement of the Ganges basin by Indo-Aryan speaking people was an extremely long and arduous process. The texts of the Vedas refer to Arya victories over dasas, their darker-skinned enemies.44 And the process of settlement well may well have involved driving communities out, appropriating women, and the enslavement of pre-existing peoples. Anyhow, the Arya used fire to help with forest clearance, and the later introduction of iron axes must also have helped."
[13]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 16, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "However, underpinned by a growing population, a widespread process of urbanization—sometimes referred to as a ‘second urbanization’—began to occur in the Ganges basin between about 600 and 400 BCE. Thus, by the latter date, there were a number of significant—mostly riverside—cities scattered throughout the basin. From west to east, they included Indraprastha (perhaps in the vicinity of what is now Delhi), Mathura, Kausambi, Ayodhya, Kashi (i.e. Varanasi or Benares), Vaisali, Pataliputra (i.e. Patna), Rajagriha (i.e. Rajgir), Champa, and the trading outlet of Tamralipti on the Bay of Bengal. While some of the Indus civilization’s more peripheral towns (e.g. in Gujarat) lingered on, these new cities in the Ganges basin were the first sizeable urban centres to have appeared for more than a thousand years. Most of the new cities were fortified. And, as one would expect, they became the centres for social, economic, political, and religious developments. They were also places of evident social differentiation. Thus, by 400 BCE, the essential structural features of the caste system already existed."
[14]
Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, pp. 59–, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "From the sixth century BCE onward, India’s shifting social, cultural, political, and economic environments produced various models of and for the universe. The two most prominent new movements coalesced as Jainism and Buddhism. These new religions had roughly contemporary founders as role models: Mahavira Jain (variously dated 600/540–527/468 BCE) and Siddhartha Gautama the Buddha (c. 560 – c. 480 BCE). ... These two religious movements advocated similar social structures for humans, with individual achievement of total nonviolence and compassion toward all living creatures as the basis of status. They thus critiqued Brahminic sacrifice of animals via fire to the gods and birth into a varna. Instead, highest in the Jain human social order are monks and nuns, committed totally to nonviolence. ... In the Buddhist social model, people are ranked according to dana (from the same Indo-European root-word as “donation” in English) – that is, how much they give, in the broadest sense, including repudiating violence on anything in the environment. Monks and nuns give up everything, donating their lives to following the nonviolent path of dhamma (the popular Pali-language form of Sanskrit’s dharma). So, they rank the highest. But laypeople can also follow the Middle Way, to the extent that they are able. Consequently, any individual who practices nonviolence and dana could rise socially and morally."
[15]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 16-17, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "Magadha power came to extend over the main cities and communication routes of the Ganges basin. Then, under Chandragupta Maurya (c.321–297 bce), and subsequently Ashoka his grandson, Pataliputra became the centre of the loose-knit Mauryan ‘Empire’ which during Ashoka’s reign (c.268–232 bce) briefly had a presence throughout the main urban centres and arteries of the subcontinent, except for the extreme south."
[16]
Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, pp. 67–, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "Despite military pressures from within and without India, the Guptas eventually built an empire that, at its peak, stretched as far west as the Indus River and as far south as Kanchipuram. Even in the Gangetic plain, however, most of this vast territory territory was ruled by largely autonomous kings who nominally recognized or just paid tribute to the Gupta emperor."
[17]
Robb, Peter (2011), A History of India, Macmillan, pp. 56–57, ISBN 978-0-230-34549-2 Quote: "The Guptas took advantage of an accretion of local power after 320 CE, with the rise of Chandragupta I in Magadha. An empire was established by his successor Sumadra Gupta (r. 335-76). He subdued smaller kingdoms across north India, including much of Bengal, and achieved some kind of suzerainty or influence as far west as the Indus river, and over most of central and eastern India, as far south as Kanchi. His son Chandragupta II (r. about 376-415) also subdued the Shakas in western India. Nevertheless the Gupta empire remained more of a confederacy than a centralized state. By around 550 it had succumbed to invaders (the Hunas, ...), local insurrections, and the collapse of tributary alliances."
[18]
Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, pp. 29–30, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6 Quote: "The geography of the Mauryan Empire resembled a spider with a small dense body and long spindly legs. The highest echelons of imperial society lived in the inner circle composed of the ruler, his immediate family, other relatives, and close allies, who formed a dynastic core. Outside the core, empire travelled stringy routes dotted with armed cities. Outside the palace, in the capital cities, the highest ranks in the imperial elite were held by military commanders whose active loyalty and success in war determined imperial fortunes. Wherever these men failed or rebelled, dynastic power crumbled. ... Imperial society flourished where elites mingled; they were its backbone, its strength was theirs. Kautilya’s Arthasastra indicates that imperial power was concentrated in its original heartland, in old Magadha, where key institutions seem to have survived for about seven hundred years, down to the age of the Guptas. Here, Mauryan officials ruled local society, but not elsewhere. In provincial towns and cities, officials formed a top layer of royalty; under them, old conquered royal families were not removed, but rather subordinated. In most janapadas, the Mauryan Empire consisted of strategic urban sites connected loosely to vast hinterlands through lineages and local elites who were there when the Mauryas arrived and were still in control when they left."
[19]
Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, pp. 28–29, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6Quote: "A creative explosion in all the arts was a most remarkable feature of this ancient transformation, a permanent cultural legacy. Mauryan territory was created in its day by awesome armies and dreadful war, but future generations would cherish its beautiful pillars, inscriptions, coins, sculptures, buildings, ceremonies, and texts, particularly later Buddhist writers."
[20]
Glenn Van Brummelen (2014), "Arithmetic", in Thomas F. Glick, Steven Livesey, Faith Wallis (ed.), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, pp. 46–48, ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) Quote: "The story of the growth of arithmetic from the ancient inheritance to the wealth passed on to the Renaissance is dramatic and passes through several cultures. The most groundbreaking achievement was the evolution of a positional number system, in which the position of a digit within a number determines its value according to powers (usually) of ten (e.g., in 3,285, the "2" refers to hundreds). Its extension to include decimal fractions and the procedures that were made possible by its adoption transformed the abilities of all who calculated, with an effect comparable to the modern invention of the electronic computer. Roughly speaking, this began in India, was transmitted to Islam, and then to the Latin West."
[21]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 20, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "Therefore, by the time of the Mauryan Empire the position of women in mainstream Indo-Aryan society seems to have deteriorated. Customs such as child marriage and dowry were becoming entrenched; and a young women’s purpose in life was to provide sons for the male lineage into which she married. To quote the Arthashāstra: ‘wives are there for having sons’. Practices such as female infanticide and the neglect of young girls were possibly also developing at this time, especially among higher caste people. Further, due to the increasingly hierarchical nature of the society, marriage was possibly becoming an even more crucial institution for childbearing and the formalization of relationships between groups. In turn, this may have contributed to the growth of increasingly instrumental attitudes towards women and girls (who moved home at marriage). It is important to note that, in all likelihood, these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent—such as those in the south, and tribal communities inhabiting the forested hill and plateau areas of central and eastern India. That said, these deleterious features have continued to blight Indo-Aryan speaking areas of the subcontinent until the present day."
[22]
Stein, Burton (2010), A History of India, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 90–, ISBN 978-1-4443-2351-1 Quote: "STATUS OF WOMEN DECLINES: Darkness can be said to have pervaded one aspect of society during the inter-imperial centuries: the degradation of women. ... The positions taken and the practices discussed by Manu and the other commentators and writers of dharmashastra are not quaint relics of the distant past, but alive and recurrent in India today – as the attempts to revive the custom of sati (widow immolation) in recent decades has shown. Child marriage, forced marriage, dowry and the expectation of abject wifely subservience, too, have enjoyed lengthy duration and continuity and are proving very difficult to stamp out."
[23]
Ramusack, Barbara N. (1999), "Women in South Asia", in Barbara N. Ramusack, Sharon L. Sievers (ed.), Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History, Indiana University Press, pp. 27–29, ISBN 0-253-21267-7 Quote: "The legal rights, as well as the ideal images, of women were increasingly circumscribed during the Gupta era. The Laws of Manu, compiled from about 200 to 400 C.E., came to be the most prominent evidence that this era was not necessarily a golden age for women. Through a combination of legal injunctions and moral prescriptions, women were firmly tied to the patriarchal family, ... Thus the Laws of Manu severely reduced the property rights of women, recommended a significant difference in ages between husband and wife and the relatively early marriage of women, and banned widow remarriage. Manu's preoccupation with chastity reflected possibly a growing concern for the maintenance of inheritance rights in the male line, a fear of women undermining the increasingly rigid caste divisions, and a growing emphasis on male asceticism as a higher spiritual calling."
[24]
Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 17, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 Quote: "The Cholas also had the advantage of proximity to the most active sector of long-distance trade within the Indian Ocean in this period, the eastern stretch extending from southeastern India through Southeast Asia and into south China. Rajaraja most likely desired more control over international trade when he annexed the northern half of the neighboring island of Sri Lanka, on the sea route between India and regions to its east. His successor Rajendra completed the conquest of Sri Lanka and went on to dispatch a naval expedition against Shrivijaya, a maritime trading kingdom based on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The victory of the Chola fleet led to fifty years of Indian dominance over the Strait of Malacca, the vital sea passage between the Malayan peninsula and Indonesia through which all trade to and from China was funneled. This was the apex of Indian influence in Southeast Asia, which had assimilated many elements of Indian civilization over the past six or more centuries, including the Sanskrit language, south Indian scripts, and the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism."
[25]
Dyson, Tim (20 September 2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, pp. 40–, ISBN 978-0-19-256430-6 Quote: "On the east coast, the kingdoms of the Pallavas and Cholas were important in what George Coedès termed the ‘Indianization’ of south-east Asia. There were antecedents to this process in the earlier transmission overseas of Brahmanical and Buddhist influences. But Indianization really began in the second century CE and lasted for over 1,000 years. Few, if any, large-scale military ventures or population movements were involved in the process (although some seagoing vessels could carry several hundred people). Instead, from southern and eastern ports like Mamallapuram, Arikamedu, and Tamralipti, a flow of adventurers, priests, scholars, merchants, and their families, departed for parts of south-east Asia—where they had a profound effect on patterns of language, court culture, administration, and art. This led to the emergence of ‘Indian kingdoms’ in what are now Cambodia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Like royalty in the south of India who themselves were influenced by the Sinhalese, the rulers of these south-east Asian realms adopted Sanskrit names.16 Moreover, in time, the export of Buddhist and Brahmanical influences led to pilgrimages and cultural links back in the opposite direction (i.e. to the subcontinent)."
[26]
Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, p. 54, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6 Quote: "In the peninsula, medieval worshippers of Siva and Vishnu displaced Buddhism and Jainism from the cultural prominence they had enjoyed in early-medieval times, especially in Madurai and Kanchipuram. Pockets of Jainism remained, however, and all along the peninsular coast, most prominently in Kerala, Hindu kings patronized diverse merchant communities that were essential features of life along the Indian Ocean coast, including Jains, Zoroastrians, Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Arab Muslim settlements received patronage from non-Muslim rulers all along the coast, as they did across the Palk Straits in Sri Lanka."
[27]
Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 78-79, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 Quote: "The Malabar coast, on which Calicut is situated, has a long history of international maritime trade going back to the era of the Roman empire. Its chief export to the western world was black pepper; other items produced in Malabar were ginger, cardamom, teak (a hard wood used in ship building), and the aromatic sandalwood. Because indigenous social groups were almost entirely preoccupied with local agrarian matters, maritime trade along the Malabar coast had always been in the hands of immigrant trading communities. Two of the immigrant communities were the Syrian Christians and the Jews, who had been resident in Kerala probably hundreds of years before their presence is definitively attested in copper-plate grants, from the ninth and late tenth centuries, respectively. Similarly, although the earliest proof of Muslim presence dates back only to the ninth century, Arab sailors must have come to the Malabar coast long before the advent of Islam.
[28]
Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, pp. 76–, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "Over the eighth to sixteenth centuries, India’s environmental history altered considerably due to internal and global forces. In the context of relatively intense climate changes, overseas and overland human immigrants brought new animal and plant species, as well as agricultural, hydraulic, military, administrative, and other technologies, which enabled innovative rulers and their subjects increasingly to affect local ecosystems. These diverse immigrants from the west, including Jews, Christians, and especially Muslims, also brought new cultural valuations of specific fauna and flora species and of Indian people. Some already-established communities, plants, and animals adapted more successfully than others to these changes."
[29]
Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, pp. 68–70, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6 Quote: "Central Asian warriors became supreme during South Asia’s medieval transition by deploying swift-horse cavalry skilled in firing arrows at full gallop, volley after volley; by raising vast armies dedicated to siege and open-field combat, undeterred by local alliance building; and by organizing cavalry well supplied with saddles, stirrups, and the latest weapons, running rapidly over long distances, staying on the move to subsist on the fruits of conquest."
[30]
Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 19, 24, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 Quote: "From the ninth century onward, Muslim rulers had increasingly relied on personal troops composed of enslaved Turks from the Central Asian steppes. These military slaves or mamluks were considered more loyal than other soldiers because they were taken captive at a young age and owed loyalty only to their master. Many mamluks went on to become prominent generals and leaders in the Islamic world in this era; at the same time, various tribes of Turks were gradually migrating into Muslim lands and becoming Islamicized. Due to their nomadic background, the Turkic peoples were skilled at cavalry warfare. ... Although Arab sailors and merchants, as well as the early Muslim Arabs who conquered Sind, were no strangers to South Asia, the Muslims who became politically dominant in the subcontinent would typically be Turco-Mongol in ethnic background, horse-riding warriors in occupation, and Persian in cultural heritage."
[31]
Dyson, Tim (20 September 2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, pp. 48–, ISBN 978-0-19-256430-6 Quote: "With raids of Afghan warriors led by the Turk, Mahmud of Ghazni, during 1000–26, Muslim armies began to make far-ranging advances into the north. Within four centuries most of the Indian subcontinent would be ruled by a relatively small Muslim elite. ... But it was the invasion of Afghans and Turks led by Muhammad Ghori, from around 1186, which had even greater effects. Ghori’s aim was to capture territory. He fought several battles before being killed in 1206. Then, in 1210, what became known as the ‘Delhi Sultanate’ was founded."
[32]
Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 52, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 Quote: "The founding of the Delhi Sultanate drew India firmly into these international networks and into the multicultural and pluralistic society that had been created by adherents of Islam. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were an exciting if turbulent age, during which a man’s fortunes could rapidly rise or equally rapidly decline. It was an era of escalating circulation – of goods, of peoples, of technologies, and of ideas. The passing of political power to Turkic Muslims, in the form of the Delhi Sultanate, may initially have been disruptive and even devastating for Indian elites. In the long term, however, the cultural and social enrichment that resulted from participation in the world’s most cosmopolitan civilization of the middle ages was to become an inextricable part of India’s greatness."
[33]
Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 74, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 Quote: "The Vijayanagara kingdom is important for the ways in which it creatively assimilated Islamicate material culture, technologies, and terminologies and transformed them into something new. Its longest lasting legacy, however, was the formation of an elite culture that spanned the southern Deccan and the Tamil country. In the first millennium CE, both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu had contained major political and cultural centers from which waves of influence had radiated outward into other areas. The situation became more fragmented during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the regional kingdoms of the Yadavas (in Maharashtra), Kakatiyas (in Andhra Pradesh), Hoysalas (in Karnataka), and Pandyas (in Tamil Nadu) each fostered the development of a different literary language and temple architectural style. What happened during the Vijayanagara period was unprecedented in that parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu came to share a common culture at the elite level – this melding of Deccan and far southern ways and people lingered on well into the colonial era."
[34]
Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 267, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 Quote: "Gobind Singh was the tenth and last of the Sikh leaders in a direct line of spiritual transmission from the founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak (1469–1539). Like Kabir, Guru Nanak was part of the Sant tradition, ... that rejected institutionalized forms of religion while stressing the equality of all individuals before god. Nanak’s god was without form but pervaded by light, to be worshipped through meditation on and repetition of his name. From early on, special emphasis was placed on congregational activities, particularly singing hymns and eating together."
[35]
Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 152, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 Quote: "By the time of Akbar’s death in 1605, a qualitative change in the scale of political and economic activities in the Indian subcontinent had occurred. The sheer size of the empire Akbar left behind is an important factor, for an estimated 110 million people resided within its borders out of a total South Asian population of slightly less than 150 million. Akbar implemented a more systematic and centralized form of rule than had prevailed earlier, which led to greater uniformity in administrative practices over a vast territory. At the same time, Akbar’s economic policies stimulated the growth of commercial activity, which interconnected the various parts of South Asia in increasingly close networks. His stipulation that land taxes be paid in cash forced peasants into the market networks where they could obtain the necessary money, while the standardization of imperial currency made the exchange of goods for money easier. Above all, the long period of relative peace ushered in by Akbar’s power, and maintained by his successors throughout the seventeenth century, contributed to India’s economic expansion."
[36]
Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, pp. 106–, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "Shah Jahan eventually sent her body 800 km (500 mi) to Agra for burial in the Rauza-i Munauwara (“Illuminated Tomb”) – a personal tribute and a stone manifestation of his imperial power. This tomb has been celebrated globally as the Taj Mahal. By the time of its completion, this tomb-garden had cost about 5 million rupees (a vast amount, but only half the Peacock Throne’s cost). For nearly four centuries, the Taj Mahal has stood as an architectural masterpiece, famous worldwide for the technology of its construction, and, even more, for the quality of its workmanship and the exquisite balance and proportion of its forms.
[37]
Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 289, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7 Quote: "Both economically and politically, therefore, the Battle of Plassey ushered in a new age of English ascendancy. An increasing number of historians consider the 1820s or 1830s to be the true beginning of the colonial period, on the other hand, for it was only then that fundamental transformations in economic and political structures occurred. By the 1820s, the East India Company had demonstrated its military strength against every potential contender with the exception of the Sikhs far to the northwest; after a century of political decentralization consequent to Mughal decline, power had now been centralized in British hands. In an even more startling shift, India lost its centuries-old position as an exporter of manufactured goods to the rest of the world in the early nineteenth century, and became instead primarily a supplier of raw materials to the British empire."
[38]
Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, pp. 120–, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "Increasingly over the late eighteenth century, the EIC used its collateral (i.e. its exclusive legal right to Asian trade and its possessions in India) to borrow substantial British, continental European, and Indian capital that funded its rising war expenses and its purchase and shipping of Indian raw materials and artisanal products to European markets. To fight its battles and enforce its financial demands on Indian farmers, merchants, and princes, each presidency hired Indian mercenaries (“sepoys”), armed and uniformed them with imported, standardized British-made equipment, and trained them as a disciplined infantry."
[39]
Taylor, Miles (2016), "The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to Prince George", in Aldrish, Robert; McCreery, Cindy (eds.), Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and Overseas Empires, Manchester University Press, pp. 38–39, ISBN 978-1-5261-0088-7 Quote: "When the governance of India was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown in 1858, she (Queen Victoria) and Prince Albert intervened in an unprecedented fashion to turn the proclamation of the transfer of power into a document of tolerance and clemency. ... they ... insisted on the clause that stated that the people of India would enjoy the same protection as all subjects of Britain. Over time, this royal intervention led to the Proclamation of 1858 becoming known in the Indian subcontinent as 'the Magna Carta of Indian liberties', a phrase which Indian nationalists such as Gandhi later took up as they sought to test equality under imperial law" (pages 38–39)"
[40]
Peers, Douglas M. (2013), India Under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885, Routledge, p. 76, ISBN 978-1-317-88286-2 Quote: "In purely legal terms, (the proclamation) kept faith with the principles of liberal imperialism and appeared to hold out the promise that British rule would benefit Indians and Britons alike. But as is too often the case with noble statements of faith, reality fell far short of theory, and the failure on the part of the British to live up to the wording of the proclamation would later be used by Indian nationalists as proof of the hollowness of imperial principles. (page 76)"
[41]
Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Hay, Stephen N.; Bary, William Theodore De (1988), "Nationalism Takes Root: The Moderates", Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan, Columbia University Press, p. 85, ISBN 978-0-231-06414-9 Quote: "Ignoring ...the conciliatory proclamation of Queen Victoria in 1858, Britishers in India saw little reason to grant Indians a greater control over their own affairs. Under these circumstances, it was not long before the seed-idea of nationalism implanted by their reading of Western books began to take root in the minds of intelligent and energetic Indians."
[42]
Marshall, P. J. (2001), The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 179, ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7 Quote: ""The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress. "... anti-colonial movements ... which, like many other nationalist movements elsewhere in the empire, were strongly infuenced by the Indian National Congress."
[43]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, pp. 219, 262, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8
[44]
Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, pp. 8–, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "From relatively impoverished British colonies, these newly independent nations have used their human and natural resources to make themselves major participants in the world economy, with India especially as a rising global economic powerhouse."
[45]
Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2012), A Concise History of Modern India, Cambridge University Press, pp. 265–266, ISBN 978-1-107-02649-0 Quote: "Economic liberalization had stimulated the growth of a prospering urban middle class, and brought about for India a major position in the global software industry"
[46]
Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 216, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: " Quote: "Whereas between 1947 and 1971 the level of per capita income grew at an average annual rate of 1.5 per cent, between 1971 and 2011 it grew at about 3.4 per cent.2 Indeed, by 2016 the economy was growing at around 6 per cent per year. Yet while living standards rose, they rose much more for some people than for others. In short, the economic growth saw rising income inequality. In addition, during 1971‒2016 the population more than doubled. Estimating the number of people living in poverty has always been difficult and contentious. Nevertheless, by some estimates the absolute number of poor people in India in 2016 was not much lower than it was in the early 1950s—indeed, it may have been slightly greater."
[47]
Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2012), A Concise History of Modern India, Cambridge University Press, p. 266, ISBN 978-1-107-02649-0 Quote: "Bollywood ﬁlms, new styles of pop music, and a wide range of spiritual teachings together meant that India increasingly contributed to a global culture."
[48]
Narayan, Jitendra; John, Denny; Ramadas, Nirupama (2018). "Malnutrition in India: status and government initiatives". Journal of Public Health Policy. 40 (1): 126–141. doi:10.1057/s41271-018-0149-5. ISSN 0197-5897. Quote: "Reports of National Health & Family Survey, United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund, and WHO have highlighted that rates of malnutrition among adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women, and children are alarmingly high in India. Factors responsible for malnutrition in the country include mother’s nutritional status, lactation behaviour, women’s education, and sanitation. These affect children in several ways including stunting, childhood illness, and retarded growth."
[49]
Balakrishnan, Kalpana; Dey, Sagnik; et al. (2019). "The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017". The Lancet Planetary Health. 3 (1): e26–e39. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4. ISSN 2542-5196. Quote: "Air pollution is a major planetary health risk, with India estimated to have some of the worst levels globally. To inform action at subnational levels in India, we estimated the exposure to air pollution and its impact on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy in every state of India in 2017. We estimated exposure to air pollution, including ambient particulate matter pollution, defined as the annual average gridded concentration of PM2.5, and household air pollution, defined as percentage of households using solid cooking fuels and the corresponding exposure to PM2.5, across the states of India using accessible data from multiple sources as part of the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2017. ... Interpretation: India has disproportionately high mortality and disease burden due to air pollution. This burden is generally highest in the low SDI states of north India. Reducing the substantial avoidable deaths and disease burden from this major environmental risk is dependent on rapid deployment of effective multisectoral policies throughout India that are commensurate with the magnitude of air pollution in each state."
[50]
India, International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 2019 Quote: "India, a megadiverse country with only 2.4% of the world's land area, accounts for 7–8% of all recorded species, including over 45,000 species of plants and 91,000 species of animals. The country’s diverse physical features and climatic conditions have resulted in a variety of ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, grasslands, desert, coastal and marine ecosystems which harbour and sustain high biodiversity... Four of 34 globally identified biodiversity hotspots: The Himalayas, the Western Ghats, the North-East, and the Nicobar Islands, can be found in India."
[51]
Jha, Raghbendra (2018), Facets of India's Economy and Her Society Volume II: Current State and Future Prospects, Springer, pp. 198–, ISBN 978-1-349-95342-4
[52]
Molnar 2015, p. 116.
[53]
Johnson & Harley 2012, p. 2.
[54]
Molnar 2015, p. 117.
[55]
Molnar 2015, p. 118.
[56]
Molnar 2015, p. 128.
[57]
Frisch, Meschede & Blakey 2011, p. 174.
[58]
Frisch, Meschede & Blakey 2011, p. 197.
[59]
Frisch, Meschede & Blakey 2011, p. 172.

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