User:Kristenmullane/final article

The term 'ecological debt' first appeared on paper in 1985, in a yellow booklet with the title “Women in movement" made by the German ecofeminist Eva Quistorp, political professor Christel Neusüss, and biologist Helga Zatzinger. The work was edited by the Green Party (Germany) in 1985 and intended to be used for a workshop she gave on 'women, peace and ecology' in Nairobi during the United Nation Women’s Conference (the first workshop of this kind).^[3]

In 1992, the term appeared again in two reports published in different places around the world: “Deuda ecológica” by Robleto and Marcelo in Chile and “Miljöskulden” by Jernelöv in Sweden.^[4] Robleto and Marcelo's report, published by the critical NGO Instituto de Ecologia Politica (IEP),^[5] was a political and activist response to the global environmental negotiations happening during the Rio Summit. It shed light on the debate occurring in Latin America since the 1980s about the crucial nature's heritage that had been consumed and not returned (i.e. ecological debt). On the other hand, Jernelöv's report goal was to calculate the Swedish debt for future generation and was intended to serve nationally for the Swedish Environmental Advisory. Although the last one had less world-wide influence in the concept's debate, it is important to note that both reports have opposite approach in considering the ecological debt: Robleto and Marcelo's report expresses it in symbolic terms, focusing on the moral and political aspects, whereas Jernelöv's report tries to quantify and monetize it in economic terms.

In 1994, the Colombian lawyer Borrero, wrote a book on ecological debt.^[6] It referred to the environmental liabilities of Northern countries for the excessive per capita production of greenhouse gases, historically and at present. The concept has then been reused by some environmental organizations from the Global South. Campaigns on the ecological debt were launched since 1997 by Accion Ecologica of Ecuador and Friends of the Earth.^[7][8]

Overall, the ecological debt 'movement' was born of the convergence of three main factors during the 80s-90s: 1) the consequences of the debt crisis in the 70s due to the Volcker shocks or the drastic increase of interest rates (followed by structural adjustments made by the US to solve the stagflation in 1981, and thus putting heavily indebted third world countries in an impossible situation in regards to debt repayment); 2) the rising of environmental awareness as seen previously (activists and NGOs attending the Rio Summit in 1992); 3) an increase in recognition of the violence caused by colonialism over the years ^[9] (the demand of recognition is over 500 years, since Columbus arrived in North America).

In 2009, ecofeminist scholar Ariel Salleh explained how the capitalist processes at work in the global North exploit nature and people simultaneously, ultimately sustaining a large ecological debt in her article, "Ecological Debt: Embodied Debt".^[9][10] At the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, politicians and corporate leaders from the global North introduced the supposed solution for the foreign debt crisis in the global South.^[9] They proposed 'debt for nature swaps', which essentially means that those countries that possess abundant biodiversity and environmental resources would give them up to the global North in return for the World Bank reducing their debt.^[9]

Feminist environmentalists, Indigenous activists, and peasants from the Global South, exposed how the Global North is much more indebted to the Global South.^[9] Salleh justified this by explaining how the 500-year-long colonization process involving the extraction of resources has caused immense damage and destruction to the ecosystem of the Global South.^[9] In fact, scientists at the US National Academy for Sciences state that in the time period of 1961–2000, by analyzing the cost of greenhouse gas emissions created by the rich (the Global North) alone, it has become apparent that the rich have imposed climate changes on the poor that greatly outweigh the poor's foreign debt.^[11] All of this environmental degradation amounts to ecological debt, seizing the people's livelihood resources in the Global South.^[12]

In 2009 as well, Andrew Simms used the ecological debt in a more bio-physical way and defined it as the consumption of resources from within an ecosystem that exceeds the system's regenerative capacity.^[13] This is seen in particular in non-renewable resources wherein consumption outstrips production. In a general sense in his work, it refers to the depletion of global resources beyond the Earth's ability to regenerate them. The concept in this sense is based on the bio-physical carrying capacity of an ecosystem; through measuring ecological footprints human society can determine the rate at which it is depleting natural resources. Ultimately, the imperative of sustainability requires human society to live within the means of the ecological system to support life over the long term. Ecological debt is a feature of unsustainable economic systems.

1. [1]

   Donoso, A. (2015). "We are not debtors, we are creditors. In: Bravo, E., & Yánez, I. (Eds.), No more looting and destruction! We the peoples of the south are ecological creditors". Southern Peoples Ecological Debt Creditors Alliance (SPEDCA).
2. [2]

   Martinez-Alier, Joan; Temper, Leah; Bene, Daniela Del; Scheidel, Arnim (2016-05-03). "Is there a global environmental justice movement?". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 43 (3): 731–755. doi:10.1080/03066150.2016.1141198. ISSN 0306-6150.
3. [3]

   Warlenius, Rikard; Pierce, Gregory; Ramasar, Vasna (2015-01). "Reversing the arrow of arrears: The concept of "ecological debt" and its value for environmental justice". Global Environmental Change. 30: 21–30. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.10.014. ISSN 0959-3780. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
4. [4]

   Warlenius, R., Pierce, G., Ramasar, V., Quistorp, E., Martínez-Alier, J., Rijnhout, L., Yanez, I. (2015). "Ecological debt. History, meaning and relevance for environmental justice". EJOLT Report. 18: 48.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
5. [5]

   Robleto M.L., Marcelo W. (1992). La deuda ecológica. Una perspectiva sociopolítica. Santiago de Chile: Instituto Ecología Política (IEP).
6. [6]

   Borrero Navia, J. (1994). La deuda ecológica. Testimonio de una reflexión. Cali: Fipma y Cela.
7. [7]

   "Deuda Ecologica". Deuda Ecologica (in Spanish). 2018. Retrieved 2018-02-28.
8. [8]

   Martinez-Alier, Joan; Temper, Leah; Bene, Daniela Del; Scheidel, Arnim (2016-05-03). "Is there a global environmental justice movement?". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 43 (3): 731–755. doi:10.1080/03066150.2016.1141198. ISSN 0306-6150.
9. [9]

   Salleh, A. (2009). Ecological debt: embodied debt. Eco-Sufficiency and Global Justice. London: Pluto Press.
10. [10]

    Salleh, Ariel (2012-08-26). "Green Economy” or Green Utopia: The Salience of Reproductive Labor Post-Rio+20". Journal of World-Systems Research: 141–145. doi:10.5195/jwsr.2012.468. ISSN 1076-156X. {{cite journal}}: C1 control character in |title= at position 14 (help)
11. [11]

    U. Thara Srinivasan; et al. (2008). "The debt of nations and the distribution of ecological impacts from human activities". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (5): 1768–1773. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.1768S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0709562104. PMC 2234219. PMID 18212119.
12. [12]

    Rice, James (March 2009). "North—South Relations and the Ecological Debt: Asserting a Counter-Hegemonic Discourse". Critical Sociology. 35 (2): 225–252. doi:10.1177/0896920508099193. ISSN 0896-9205.
13. [13]

    Andrew Simms. Ecological Debt: The Health of the Planet & the Wealth of Nations. (London: Pluto Press, 2009) p.200.