User:Marcd30319/Task Force 60 version B

U.S. carrier Mediterranean deployments, 1946–1950

With the escalating crises in Turkey and Greece, Task Group 125.4 led by the carrier Franklin D. Roosevelt departed Norfolk Naval Base, Virginia, for the eastern Mediterrranean on 8 August 1946 under the command of Rear Admiral John H. Cassady.^{[Note 2][16][17]} The key event of this deployment was a highly publicized port visit to Piraeus, Greece, on 5 September 1946.^[18][19] According to the late American historian James Chace noted, this deployment by Task Group 125.4 "symbolized" the true beginning of the Cold War by demonstrating U.S. support of the pro-Western governments of Greece and Turkey in the face of external Soviet pressure and internal Communist insurrections.^[20]

When the carrier Randolph entered the Mediterranean Sea on 1 November 1946, the U.S. Navy began the postwar deployment of fast carrier task forces to the region (see chart below).^[21] Reflecting this development, U.S. Naval Forces Mediterranean was established on 1 October 1946 and was subsequently redesignated the U.S. Sixth Fleet on 12 February 1950.^[22] Following the start of Korean War, on 28 June 1950, U.S. President Harry S. Truman authorized a second carrier task group be added to the U.S. Sixth Fleet's fast carrier task force, Task Force 60.^[23]

U.S. Navy carrier aviation and strategic nuclear warfare

Although initially controversial, in the event of a nuclear war, U.S. Navy would supplement, but not supersede the worldwide bombing campaign of the U.S. Air Force's Strategic Air Command, with carrier task forces attacking Soviet naval bases, submarine pens, port facilities, and other maritime targets. This approach was an off-shoot from the immediate post-war strategy to bomb Soviet submarine bases "at the source" developed by Anglo-American naval planners to forestall a third Battle of the Atlantic from taking place.^{[Note 3][24][25]}

Initially, the P2V-3C Neptune was used as on an interim basis to deliver atomic bombs from Midway-class aircraft carriers. The AJ Savage was the first carrier-based attack aircraft designed to operate full-time from a carrier's flight deck. However, neither aircraft was entirely satisfactory. The U.S. Navy found the right carrier-based aircraft to meet its strategic nuclear mission in the jet-powered Douglas A-3 Skywarrior.^[5]

The first squadron equipped with the A-3 Skywarrior was Heavy Attack Squadron 1 (VAH-1), and its first overseas deployment was with Task Force 60 in November 1956. Initially, the 12-aircraft squadron was split into two detachments on the task force's two Forrestal-class aircraft carriers, the Saratoga and Forrestal.^[26] The next and final heavy attack bomber was the supersonic North American A-5 Vigilante which was converted to tactical strike reconnaissance following its initial deployment with Task Force 60.^[27]

In August 1952, Composite Squadron 4 (VC-4) deployed modified McDonnell F2HB Banshee fighters as the first U.S. Navy jet-powered, nuclear-armed light attack aircraft. A four-aircraft VC-4 detachment was assigned to the Franklin D. Roosevelt which participated in a NATO exercise in the north Atlantic before joining Task Force 60 in the Mediterranean.^[28]

In August 1960, the Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff (JSTPS) was established as inter-service agency based at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, the headquarters for the Strategic Air Command. JSTPS developed a national strategic target list (NSTL) amd a single integrated operational plan (SIOP) for the United States. SIOP was the U.S. joint battle plan for nuclear warfare which now included the U.S. Navy's aircraft carriers and Polaris-missile submarines. Previously, the targeting of nuclear-armed carrier aircraft and Polaris missiles were the responsibility of the fleet commanders in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Europe.^[29] As a part of SIOP, Task Force 60 was required to operate within ready steaming distance from its launching zone in the event of a nuclear war. Although ballistic missile submarines became a recognized part of the United States' nuclear triad, TF-60 aircraft carriers retained a residual nuclear warfare capability and remained in SIOP.^[30]

On 5 October 1991, U.S. President George H.W. Bush announced the removal of all nuclear weapons from U.S. naval surface warships, concluding the role of Task Force 60 as a sea-based nuclear strike force.^[6]

Task Force 60 and NATO's Southern Flank

In January 1950, the North Atlantic Council approved NATO's military strategic concept of deterring Soviet aggression.^[31] NATO military planning took on a renewed urgency following the outbreak of the Korean War, prompting NATO to establish Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) on 2 April 1951.^[32][33] Also in 1951, NATO's military southern region was set up as Allied Forces South (AFSOUTH) under the command of Admiral Robert B. Carney, USN, with the commander of the U.S. Sixth Fleet as AFSOUTH's naval commander. When Allied Forces Mediterranean (AFMED) was established in 1952 under Lord Mountbatten, Admiral Carney retained control the Sixth Fleet and Task Force 60 as Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH). Under this command arrangement, STRIKFORSOUTH was effectively the NATO designation for the Sixth Fleet, though additional NATO headquarters personnel were assigned, while maintaining American-only control over the nuclear weapons on board the U.S. aircraft carriers of Task Force 60 as mandated by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946.^[34] Task Force 502 was the designation for STRIKFORSOUTH's carrier task force.^[7]

For 1952's Exercise Longstep, the objective of the Allied ("Blue") forces was to dislodge enemy ("Green") invasion forces from their occupying positions in the Eastern Mediterranean. Green forces consisted of the Italian 56th Tactical Air Force and submarines of the United States, Great Britain, France, Greece, and Turkey lying in wait to ambush the Blue amphibious convoy departing from Italian embarkation ports. Blue naval forces were centered around Task Force 60 and its two aircraft carriers, the Wasp and Franklin D. Roosevelt (pictured). Air sorties were flown by American and Italian aircraft attacking Blue naval forces, with Blue carrier-based aircraft counter-attacking Green military targets in northern Italy.^[35]

For 1958's Operation Deep Water, the exercise's scenario was that NATO forces would protect the Dardanelles from a Soviet invasion in order to prevent the Soviet Black Sea Fleet from gaining access to the Mediterranean Sea.^[36][37] Given the overwhelming numerical superiority of Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact military forces, NATO embraced the concept of the nuclear umbrella to protect Western Europe from a Soviet ground invasion.^[38] Consequently, Operation Deep Water opened with a simulated atomic air strike in the Gallipoli area on 25 September 1957 that included Task Force 60 carriers Randolph and Franklin D. Roosevelt.^[39]

Following the end of the Cold War, NATO's Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH) was re-designated as Naval Striking and Support Forces NATO (STRIKFORNATO) on 1 July 2004 with operational responsibilities throughout NATO's area of responsibilities.^[40]

1950s operations

Task Force 60 supported the U.S. Sixth Fleet's mission of showing the flag on behalf of the United States and its allied throughout the Mediterranean Sea. On 15 July 1951, while servicing with Task Force 60, the carrier Coral Sea hosted Marshall Tito of Yugoslavia who observed carrier operations during a one-day cruise as a demonstration of U.S. support following Yugoslavia's expulsion from the Comintern in 1948.^[41]

The presence of the Sixth Fleet and its Task Force 60 also provided a stabilizing presence in the often volatile Middle East. On 14 August 1950, Task Force 60 carriers Midway and Leyte performed an airpower demonstration during a post visit to Beirut, Lebanon. This visit by the Sixth Fleet was made at the request of the Lebanese Government, and it demonstrated the continuing American commitment to the eastern Mediterranean regardless of the operational demands of the Korean War.^[42] Between August to November 1957, the Sixth Fleet deployed to the eastern Mediterranean to stabilize a border dispute between Syria and Turkey, a NATO ally. Task Force 60 consisted of the Randolph and Intrepid task groups.^[43]

In March 1956, amid growing internal and external turmoil, King Hussein of Jordan dismissed General Sir John Glubb as commander of the Transjordan's Arab Legion. In response, Task Force 60 carriers Coral Sea and Randolph deployed to the eastern Mediterranean with a Sixth Fleet amphibious task group. This crisis ended when a new cabinet was formed.^[44] In April 1957, amid a coup attempt against King Hussein, the U.S. Sixth Fleet and the British Mediterranean Fleet deployed to the eastern Mediterranean in a show of force. For this crisis, Task Force 60 consisted of the Intrepid, Lake Champlain, and Forrestal carrier task groups (pictured).^[43][45][46]

1956's Suez Crisis was caused by the nationalization of the Suez Canal by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser on 26 July 1956. In a coordinated response, the Israeli military launnched Operation Kadesh, the invasion of the Sinai peninsula, on 29 October 1956. This was followed by an Anglo-French invasion force to retake the Suez Canal on 31 October 1967. The British and French navies used the upcoming NATO exercise Beehive to assemble their carrier-invasion fleet for this operation.^[47][48] Following orders from the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, the U.S. Sixth Fleet cancelled its planned participation in NATO Exercise Beehive, and Task Force 60's two carriers, Coral Sea and Randolph, were ordered east-southeast of Cyprus to monitor the Anglo-French task force as well as provide air cover for the evacuation of U.S. nationals from Alexandria, Egypt.^{[48][49][50][51][52]} With the crisis continued, a two-carrier force was deployed to the Eastern Atlantic Ocean to reinforce Task Force 60 if needed.^{[Note 4]} Designated Task Force 26, this carrier task force consisted of the Franklin D. Roosevelt and Forrestal under the command of Rear Admiral Murr E. Arnold.^{[17][52][53][54]} The two TF-26 carriers had been loaded with additional nuclear weapons prior to their departure.^[53][55] By 22 December 1956, the British-French forces had withdrawn from Egyptian territory, and Israeli forces had withdrawn from Gaza by 19 March 1957.^[56]

In 1958, an insurrection in Lebanon broke out, instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the United Arab Republic. On 14 July 1958, a military coup d'état led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew the pro-Western Iraqi government of King Faisal II, prompting Lebanese President Camille Chamoun to request assistance from the United States to help restore order in Lebanon. In accordance with the Eisenhower Doctrine, the United States initiated a military intervention code-named Operation Blue Bat.^[57]

On 15 July 1958, the U.S. Sixth Fleet set sail for the eastern Mediterranean, arriving 17 July 1958. Between 15–18 July 1958, three U.S. Marine Corps Battalion Landing Teams landed near Beruit, with U.S. Army troops airlifted from Germany. By the end of 10 July 1958, U.S. ground forces in Lebanon numbered 11,000, and it reached a peak strength of more than 14,000 by 8 August 1958.^[57]

For Operation Blue Bat, Task Force 60 initially consisted of the Saratoga and Essex task groups under the overall command of Rear Admiral Howard A. Yeagar.^[58][59] TF-60 provided combat air support against potential air attacks from Egypt, Syria or the Soviet Union via Bulgaria. Since British forces deploying to Jordan to support King Hussein's government, RAF aircraft were initially unavailable. Task Force 60 took on the entire air combat mission during the early stages of Operation Blue Bat.^[59] The Essex task group was the first carrier force on station, arriving off Beriut on 15 July 1958. Essex launched a 11 aircraft to provide close air support for the first U.S. Marine Battalion Landing Team that went ashore. The Essex task group provided nearly around-the-clock air cover to the Marines through 20 September 1958, On 17 July 1958, the 'Saratoga task group arrived on station and began providing combat air patrol and reconnaissance. Also on that date, Task Force 60 launched 50 aircraft that flew a low-level show of force over the west bank of Jordan River prior the first arrival of British Army forces. Task Force 60 maintained a high-typo of air operations between 3 August and 5 September 1958, flying a total of 6,985 sorties. Task Group 60 operated near 33° North - 33° East while maintaining a loose ship formation for protection against potential nuclear attack. Task Force 60 maintained daytime air cover while it replenished its fuel, stores, and ammunition at night.^[60][61] Beginning 23 July 1958, with the crisis easing, Essex and Saratoga began to rotate for shore leave. On 28 August 1958, the Essex task group transited the Suez Canal to reinforce the U.S. Seventh Fleet off the Formosa Straits during the Quemoy-Matsu crisis. On 12 September 1958, the Forrestal and Randolph task groups joined Task Force 60, and the Saratoga departed the Mediterranean Sea on 21 September 1958.^[53][62] On 5 September 1958, Task Force 60 ended its air support for Operation Blue Bat. On 8 October 1958, a new Lebanese cabinet was formed, and the Operation Blue Bat ended on 25 October 1958.^[63]

1960s operations

1970s operations

1980s operations

Operation Iraqi Freedom

For Operation Iraqi Freedom, the 2003 coalition invasion of Iraq, Task Force 60 was designated Combined Task Force 160 (CTF-60) (pictured) under the overall command of Rear Admiral John D. Stufflebeem.^[67] Operating from the eastern Mediterranean, the mission of CTF-160 was to provide combat air support to the ground campaign operating in northern Iraq.^[68] Combined Task Force 160 consisted of the Theodore Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman carrier strike groups, with the Truman strike group carrying out daytime flight operations and the Theodore Roosevelt strike group carrying out night-time flight operations.^[69]

On 19 March 2003, Harry S. Truman Carrier Strike Group and its embarked Carrier Air Wing 3 (CVW-3) began conducting combat missions in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Over the next 30 days, the Truman strike group dropped more than 700 long tons (710 t) of ordnance in support of U.S. coalition ground forces in northern Iraq, the most ordanace delivered by any carrier strike group during the operation.^[70] During that 30 day period, airwing aircraft flew nearly 1,300 combat sorties.^[71][72][73] In total, the Truman strike group spent a total 89 consecutive days at sea without a port call during Operation Iraqi Freedom.^[69]

For the Theodore Roosevelt strike group, Operation Iraqi Freedom represented a culmination of a greatly accelerated post-overhaul, pre-deployment training schedule.^[74] On 22 March 2003, a 20-aircraft strike force destroyed Iraqi command-and-control and infrastructure targets, including one of presidential palace complexes, as well as one of the primary Iraqi AM broadcasting stations.^[75] When the carrier Theodore Roosevelt and Carrier Air Wing Eight (CVW-8) returned home on 29 May 2003, the Theodore Roosevelt strike group had flown more than 6,500 sorties (1,003 combat sorties), compiled more than 15,000 flight hours, and delivered more than 500 long tons (510 t) of ordnance.^[74][76]

Summarizing his force's accomplishments during Operation Iraqi Freedom, Admiral Stufflebeem called Task Force 60 "the largest U.S. Navy battle force assembled in the Mediterranean for combat since World War II."^[69]

Africa Partnership Station

Task Force 60 provides ships and manpower for the Africa Partnership Station (APS) initiative. This effort includes naval support for U.S. Africa Command's training and security assistance operations involving western Africa nations.^[9] The first Africa Partnership Station began when Task Group 60.4 departed Naples, Italy, under the command of Captain John Nowell on 29 October 2007. The task group included its flagship, the USS Fort McHenry (pictured), and the USS Swift, a high-speed transport. Task Group 60.4 visited Senegal, Liberia, Ghana, Cameroon, Gabon, Angola, and Sao Tome and Principe. Africa Partnership Station 2007 developed cooperative partnerships among the regional maritime services while improving safety and security for the host nations. APS 2007 also supported over 20 humanitarian assistance projects during this deployment.^[77]