User:OrionNimrod/Sandbox2

The battle in Transylvania within the Kingdom of Hungary between Hunyadi and Mezid Bey: Older historiography places at Szeben^[5][14][15], while modern historiography places the battle at the Iron Gate Pass (Vaskapu in Hungarian).^{[16][17][6][7][8]}

The battle between Hunyadi and Şehabeddin Pasha: Older historiography places at the Iron Gate Pass in Transylvania^[1], while modern historiography places the battle at the Ialomiţa River in Wallachia.^[6][3][7][8] The exact place is still a matter of much debate among historians.^[6] American historian John Jefferson suggests a battlefield on the Danube near the modern town of Călărași in southern Romania.^[2][11][6]

King Sigismund of Hungary (reigned 1387–1437) pursued an effective, decades-long, fundamentally defensive policy in the Hungarian–Ottoman Wars.^[16] Sigismund ordered Franko Talloci, John Orszag, and John Marczaly to lead a contingent of Hungarian, Polish, and Czech soldiers in a raid against Turkish territory in the summer of 1437. Ali Bey, the marcher lord of Vidin, assembled an Ottoman force to pursue and attack the Hungarian raiders. Due in part to the valiant and decisive actions of Franko Talloci, the Ottoman force was routed, and the Hungarians pursued the retreating Ottomans for three miles, inflicting casualties where possible. The raid on Kruševac was the largest and most successful Hungarian incursion in many years. It penetrated more than 100 kilometers into enemy territory, inflicted multiple defeats, and crippled the Ottoman river fleet. The raid had two significant consequences. First, it marked the first major offensive undertaken by the Hungarians in years, demonstrating the potential effectiveness of such operations. Second, it provoked the anger of the Sultan at a time when other factors were already pushing the Ottomans toward the annexation of Serbia and the conquest of Hungary. Six months after the Kruševac raid, Sigismund died.^[18]

In late 1437, after the death of King Sigismund, Sultan Murad II addressed his court:^[19]

Who from among my subjects knows the roads of Hungary?...My sultan! Hungary is a most glorious kingdom and befits you. Is it not shameful that an infidel should be lord of this kingdom?

The Ottomans became aware of the Transylvanian peasant revolt in 1437, a fact which made the region an even more attractive target for the large-scale expedition of the following year. Ali Bey, possibly driven by a desire for revenge after his defeat near Smederevo that summer, launched a raid into Transylvania during the winter of 1437–1438, aiming to gather intelligence about the region.^[20]

In 1438, Sultan Murad II personally led the largest raid on Hungary in living memory,^[21] an Ottoman expedition in Transylvania.^[22] The Ottoman invasion ravaged southeastern Hungary for 45 days, during which the Ottomans faced little resistance, except at Szeben (today Sibiu, Romania), where the resistance of citizens caused significant Ottoman casualties.^[20]

Between 1438 and 1440, the Ottoman Empire pursued a comprehensive strategy aimed at expanding its influence and territorial control in the Balkans and Central Europe. This approach involved the annexation and incorporation of buffer states such as Serbia, followed by efforts to bring Wallachia under direct Ottoman control. Simultaneously, the Ottomans launched repeated raids into Transylvania and other regions of the Kingdom of Hungary. These incursions were intended not only to weaken Hungarian resistance but also to divert Hungarian resources and attention, thereby preventing effective support for Serbia or Wallachia. A central objective of this strategy was the capture of key fortresses, particularly Belgrade, which could serve as a strategic base for further operations into Hungarian territory and assist in overcoming the natural defensive barrier posed by the Danube River. Following the anticipated seizure of Belgrade, the Ottomans planned to initiate a broader campaign aimed at the conquest of Hungary, with the ultimate goal of annexing at least a portion of the Hungarian Kingdom into the Ottoman realm.^[20]

Between 1438 and 1440, the Kingdom of Hungary experienced the most intense period of Ottoman raids in its history, both in terms of size and frequency. In the winter of 1439 to 1440 alone, two large raids were carried out against the kingdom. In just one of these, 7,000 prisoners were seized. According to Petrus de Alla, a Franciscan monk who resided in Edirne as chaplain to the local Italian merchant community, approximately 160,000 Christians had been enslaved since early 1438.^[23]

[Between June 1439 and May 1440] The mujahedeen crossed the river into the kingdom of Hungary five times in boats. They raided, sated themselves with ample plunder, smashed their idols and their crosses, ravaged their homes and palaces, scorched their countryside and villas, suppressed their images and engravings, and reduced their castles stone by stone as they fell upon their heads.

The Janissary Corps were a formidable elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultan's household troops, they were the first modern standing army, and perhaps the first infantry force in the world to be equipped with firearms, adopted during the reign of Murad II. The Slaves of the Porte (janissaries) comprised the disciplined core of the sultan’s army and they fought in most of the major campaigns from 1440–1444. The slave system during this period is considered one of the key factors contributing to Ottoman-Hungarian hostilities. In addition to economic incentives, military objectives were also a driving force. Ottoman territorial expansion required a continuous supply of soldiers, which in turn necessitated the recruitment of new manpower. Raids and invasions carried out between 1437 and 1441 all resulted in the seizure of massive numbers of slaves, many of which eventually became Slaves of the Porte (janissaries). Although the process of indoctrination and training of these captives took years, these campaigns simultaneously weakened the Kingdom of Hungary and strengthened the Ottoman military. Contemporary Ottoman and Christian sources indicate that especially high numbers of captives were taken during the campaigns of 1438–1439.^[24] In Transylvania in 1455 there were still many cities and towns that were abandoned and had not yet recovered from the raids of 1438–1439.^[24]

As the "key to the realm", the castle of Belgrade was the biggest and most fortified border stronghold of Hungary,^[25] regarded as the southern gate of the Hungarian Kingdom.^[10] In 1440, the Ottomans under Sultan Murad II laid siege to Belgrade, the most important Hungarian border fortress in the south, but they had to lift the siege after seven months due to the stiff resistance of the Hungarian garrison and the approaching winter season.^[6] This situation, combined with an ongoing civil war over the Hungarian royal succession, suggests that an Ottoman victory in 1440 could very likely have led to the collapse of the kingdom shortly thereafter. Despite this, many Hungarian nobles remained more concerned with the outcome of the internal conflict than with the threat posed by the Ottomans.^[9]

The Ottoman advance that began in 1438 was halted at the Siege of Belgrade in 1440, the last offensive campaign against Hungary personally led by Sultan Murad II. A second attempt to capture Belgrade was not undertaken until 1456, well after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Following the failed siege, Murad appears to have abandoned the idea of conquering Hungary through a direct assault on Belgrade. Instead, he redirected his focus toward Wallachia and Transylvania. His broader strategy was to use these lands as a springboard to conquer Hungary from the east, thereby bypassing Belgrade altogether.^[9]

vlad dracul article: Vlad's patron, Sigismund of Luxembourg, died on 9 December 1437.[21][22][23] Sigismund's death and the uprising of the Transylvanian peasants weakened Hungary, forcing Vlad to seek reconciliation with the Ottoman Empire.[22] He went to Edirne and swore fealty to Murad II.[22] He also promised to pay a yearly tribute to the sultan and to support the Ottomans' military campaigns at the sultan's order.[22][23] Before long, Murad II decided to invade Hungary and gathered his troops at Vidin.[24]

Albert of Habsburg (who was Sigismund of Luxembourg's son-in-law and successor)[25] wrote a letter to Vlad, ordering him to protect Transylvania.[24] Ignoring the king's command, Vlad joined Murad II who came to Wallachia at the head of his army in summer 1438, serving the sultan as his guide.[26] The Ottoman and Wallachian troops broke into Hungary at Orșova.[24] They routed the army of a local Vlach kenez, Cândea, near Hațeg.[22][27] They marched along the river Mureș, capturing Câlnic and Sebeș.[22] At Sebeș, Vlad convinced the leaders of the town to give in without resistance, promising to protect their property if they accompanied him to Wallachia.[27][28] The Ottomans and Wallachians laid siege to Sibiu, but the siege lasted only for 8 days.[22] They destroyed the outskirts of Brașov, before they left Hungary loaded with plunder and taking more than 30,000 captives.[22][29][27]

John Hunyadi

John Hunyadi was appointed Ban of Szörény in 1439. Hunyadi, together with Nicholas Újlaki, annihilated the troops of the opponents of King Vladislaus I at Bátaszék at the very beginning of 1441.^[26][27] Their victory effectively put an end to the Hungarian civil war.^[26] The grateful king appointed Hunyadi and his comrade joint Voivodes of Transylvania and Counts of the Székelys in February.^[27][26] Hunyadi also became Chief Captain of Nándorfehérvár (now Belgrade) and the ispán (head) of several southern counties of the Kingdom of Hungary, assuming responsibility for the defense of the frontiers.^[28][27] John Hunyadi immediately advocated for an offensive, anti-Ottoman strategy after taking control of the southern frontiers.^[16] In 1441, as reaction to the Ottoman occupation of Novo Brdo, Hunyadi began to make raids on the Ottoman countryside in Serbia, the operation of Hunyadi aimed to devastate the area in the same manner as Turkish raiders typically did. Hunyadi was on his way back to Belgrade when his path was blocked by the troops of Ishak Bey.^[17] By the Battle of Smederevo he defeated Ishak Bey, the commander of Smederovo.^{[17][8][6][4]} Hunyadi pursued Ishak Bey and his men all the way to the gates of Smederovo, killing and capturing as many of the enemy as possible along the way.^[29]

The battle between John Hunyadi and Mezid Bey

The Sultan was upset by the defeat of Ishak Bey and ordered a massive raid against Hungary.^[6] The Hungarian court was informed about the planned Ottoman invasion of March in 1442. Hunyadi had the responsibility for the defense of the southern frontiers. Hunyadi co-voivode Nicholas Újlaki was in Pozsony (now Bratislava, Slovakia). Before the anticipated Ottoman attack, Hunyadi mobilized the forces of the entire southeastern defensive section.^[16] The Ottoman raid was set to take place in the early spring of 1442 with 16,000 akinji cavalry raiders under the command of the experienced marcher lord Mezid Bey.^{[6][16][2][17]} The forces of Mezid Bey pillaged southern and central Transylvania in March 1442.^[16][6] They defeated the army of John Hunyadi and Bishop György Lépes in a battle on the 18th of March.^[6][16] But the Ottoman army was ultimately defeated by John Hunyadi in a decisive battle on the 22nd of March 1442 at the Iron Gate Pass (Vaskapu in Hungarian) in southwestern Transylvania.^[6][7] The Ottoman losses were heavy, Hunyadi recovered the stolen loot. Mezid Bey died, along with his son and the majority of his men.^[6] According to older historiography, John Hunyadi defeated Mezid Bey and the raiding Ottoman army at the Battle of Szeben in the south part of the Kingdom of Hungary in Transylvania.^[14]

According to the viewpoint of classic historiography, Transylvania was caught by surprise by the Ottoman attack. Voivode John Hunyadi had only recently arrived in the region before the raid and, together with the bishop of Transylvania, György Lépes, hastily gathered an army and charged at the Turks. However, they were defeated near Gyulafehérvár (now Alba Iulia, Romania), the bishop was killed on the battlefield, and Hunyadi was wounded. However, Hunyadi, without hesitation, called the people of the province to arms – nobles, Székelys, and peasants alike – and just five days later, he delivered a decisive defeat to the Turkish army. However, according to historian Tamás Pálosfalvi, Hunyadi was not present at this first battle, which took place in Marosszentimre (now Sântimbru, Romania). The Thuróczy chronicle preserved the information that Hunyadi arrived in Transylvania only directly before the first battle. The credibility of this information is reinforced by the fact that, according to a charter issued by King Vladislaus I of Hungary, the first clash occurred unexpectedly. According to Pálosfalvi, the battle could not have been unforeseen if Hunyadi had already been in Transylvania awaiting the Turkish attack. The wounded Hunyadi likely had little opportunity, in just four days, to meaningfully replenish his battle-weary army and launch a surprise attack on the retreating Turks, who were undoubtedly made more cautious by their own losses. Also, in just four days, no meaningful mobilization could have been carried out, let alone catching up with the retreating Turkish army.^[16]

Hunyadi was encamped with his troops around Temesvár (now Timișoara, Romania), prepared to intervene wherever his presence might be required. His late arrival in Transylvania, and the consequent defeat of the local army, which resulted in the death of the Bishop of Transylvania, was explained by the fact that the Ottomans had also launched an attack on Slavonia, compelling Hunyadi to wait until the second Ottoman army had moved westward.^[16]

According to Pálosfalvi, the location of Hunyadi's subsequent victory over the retreating Mezid Bey was the Vaskapu (Iron Gate) in Hunyad County. This identification is supported by a letter written by Hunyadi himself a few years later, under similar circumstances.^[16]

Hunyadi chased the Ottomans beyond the Hungarian borders and the Hungarian army penetrated Wallachia at the Red Tower Pass, Hunyadi forced Voivode Vlad II Dracul to became again a Hungarian vassal. Later continuing his campaign, Hunyadi also forced the Moldavian voivodes Ilie and Stephen II, who until that time had recognized the authority of the Polish king, to renew their loyalty to the Hungarian king.^[14]

Apart from the glorious battles led by Voivode John, bad luck accompanied the Turks everywhere, whenever one of their troops sneaked into the country through some hidden route to get booty as usual. Because Voivode John's knights, whom he ordered to protect the country, always put them to flight. Thus, all roads were closed to them to attack the land of Hungary: their spears could not even flash in the sunlight within the borders of the country.

— Johannes Thuróczy: Chronica Hungarorum^[30]

By defeating Mezid and launching the raid in Wallachia, Hunyadi clearly signaled that, despite the civil war in Hungary, attackers could expect strong resistance. The repeated plundering of Transylvania, however, undoubtedly convinced him that the theater of war needed to be pushed as far from Hungary's borders as possible. This can be considered the direct lesson of the campaign in terms of Hunyadi's anti-Turkish strategy.^[16]

The defeat of Mezid Bey in Transylvania and the surrender of the Wallachian and Moldavian voivodes incited Sultan Murad II for revenge, he decided a general, large-scale retaliatory campaign against the Kingdom of Hungary for the following year, which he personally intended to lead. In order to immediately avenge the defection of the Wallachian voivod and the defeat of Mezid Bey, the Sultan entrusted one of his famous lieutenant, Beylerbey Şehabeddin of Rumelia, who offered himself voluntarily for this task with great confidence^[11][1], to punish Wallachia and Transylvania, telling him "not to dare to return before the conquest of the two territory".^[1]

Murad, the emperor of the Turks was deep in thought, often recalling the many defeats of his people and the large-scale destruction of his people, as well as the fact that the territories of Moldavia and Wallachia and their rulers were broke away from him. He was very indignant on this and determined to take revenge on those who had offended him. Therefore, he gathered eighty thousand warriors from the selected military of his country, the most noble in martial virtues. He made the pasha their leader, who was second only to him in managing the country's military affairs. He ordered him to rush Wallachia as soon as possible and ravage it, since their voivode had separated from him. He should then lead his troops from here to the Transylvanian parts of Hungary and impose the harshest possible punishment with fire and sword, and take the most merciless revenge for all the insults committed by Voivode John.

— Johannes Thuróczy: Chronica Hungarorum^[30]

The number of the Ottoman army was 80,000 people unanimously according to the writers.^[1] As Beylerbey of Rumelia (Provincial Governor of Rumelia) and Ottoman vezir, Şehabeddin was able to command significantly more military resources than Mezid Bey. Aside from the akinji, comprising about 15,000 cavalrymen, he gathered a total of 16 sanjak beys (governors), representing just over half of the provincial Ottoman cavalry force. He also brought along between 2,000 and 4,000 janissaries. The janissaries with the provincial cavalry were intended to defend his camp to avoid him from a similar fate that of Mezid Bey.^[11] According to Jean de Wavrin, they dug a fortified position every night around the Şehabeddin's camp, complete with stakes, trenches and a ring of camels, that is why Hunyadi did not to attack the pasha's camp.^[11] Şehabeddin with the Rumelian army, to which the selected soldiers of 6 Anatolian districts were joined too, crossed the Danube at Nikopol in June 1442 and then with his army divided into two groups, he caused enormous destruction in Wallachia.^[1]

An Ottoman envoy was headed to the Hungarian royal court, while Şehabeddin penetrated Wallachia. Upon arriving in Buda, the envoy engaged in discussions regarding the possibility of a treaty with the Hungarian king, he mentioned that the Ottomans had gathered a grand army and were advancing, fully prepared to avenge Mezid Bey's earlier defeat. In Wallachia, Şehabeddin's purpose was to punish their disloyalty, secure their continued allegiance to the Ottomans, and make an impressive show of force that would turn negotiations with the Hungarians in Buda in their favor.^[11]

Şehabeddin led his troops into Târgoviște and the Wallachian capital was seized and burned. He sent raiders to plunder Wallachia.^[11] Not considering resistance advisable, Vlad II Dracul, the Wallachian voivode retreated to the mountains with his troops, and the majority of the Wallachian population also fled there.^[1][11] The Vlachs had ensured that the Ottomans would not discover any food in their land, fully aware that the Turks would never attack them in the mountains. They waited in the hills while the Ottomans ravaged and plundered the countryside.^[11] After the destruction of Wallachia, Şehabeddin gathered his army and prepared to march into Transylvania, bragging and boasting that at the mere sight of his turban, the cowardly enemy would run away from him at a distance of several days.^[1][31] Şehabeddin was overconfident just as Mezid Bey.^[32][11]

Meanwhile, Hunyadi had been informed of the coming assault and already made preparations.^[11] When John Hunyadi who was the Voivode of Transylvania and the Count of the Székelys learned the appearance of the Ottoman army in Wallachia, he immediately carried the bloody sword around in Transylvania, calling the gathering of the Székely and Hungarian armies around Szeben. This was the ancient Hungarian custom when the Hungarian king called to war, the bloody sword was carried across the realm. The gathered army of Hunyadi consisted about 15,000 experienced troops together with the units of Nicholas Újlaki who also was the Transylvanian joint voivode of Hunyadi.^[1]

In the next month in July, Şehabeddin did not go into Transylvania towards Szeben (today's Sibiu) or Brasov (today's Brașov) through the southern Transylvanian border mountains, because the Vlach soldiers retreated to these mountains and it was also easier for the large number of Turkish army to march through the Banate of Szörény into Hungarian territory towards Orsova and Karánsebes (today's Orșova and Caransebeș) in order to intrude through the Iron Gate Gorge into Transylvania.^[1][32] Hunyadi learned by his spies that the Ottoman army did not go towards Szeben but towards Orsova, he decided to stop the penetrating Ottomans into the Kingdom of Hungary at the Iron Gate,^[1] which was a mountain pass between Transylvania and Banat (Temesköz in Hungarian) in Hunyad county.^[30] When Şehabeddin's army arrived in the south regions of Hungary at Karánsebes, he launched raiding detachments in the direction of Temesvár (today's Timișoara), Lugos (today's Lugoj) and the Iron Gate and they immediately began to devastate the countryside. The main Ottoman army advanced towards the Iron Gate, the army of Hunyadi followed them unnoticed along the surrounding mountains. Part of the Hungarian army suddenly descended from the mountains to stand in the way of the enemy at front of the Iron Gate. This surprised Şehabeddin and he made his entrenched camp in front of the narrow entrance to the Iron Gate Gorge instead of continuing his advance. Hunyadi also established his camp, both sides considered that setting their armies in battle order and preparing them adequately is necessary before the decisive clash.^[1]

Antonio Bonfini was commissioned to write the history of the Hungarians by King Matthias of Hungary in 1488, he used witnesses to describe the battle. According to Bonfini, Hunyadi mainly relied on his heavy cavalry, he divided them proportionally between the two wings and the middle-ward of the army. He placed the light cavalry in front and the side of the wings. He set slinger horsemen behind the wings, he placed his heavy infantry in the middle between the slingers, and spearmen and archers stood up as a reserve behind the heavy infantry. The war wagons with light infantry were placed in a long line slightly behind on both side of the army at the foot of the mountains.^[1] Earlier, Hunyadi studied the Hussites' tactics, he applied its featuring elements, including the use of wagons as a mobile fortress.^[33]<^[34] On the Ottoman side, the heavy cavalry stood in the center in two, or even more battle lines, and the janissaries stood on both sides of them, while the light cavalry sipahis were placed to the two wings.^[1]

Hunyadi opened the battle with the advance of the middle-ward of his army as a wedge battle formation in order to break the Ottoman line, but the heavy Ottoman cavalry, supported by the janissaries, successfully held the first attack of the Hungarian army. Şehabeddin ordered his janissaries to attack the center army of Hunyadi forming a semi-circle against the advancing wedge formation of the Hungarians in order to break and cut away them from the flanks. He also ordered the sipahis to make a hard attack, and they pushed back the Hungarian light cavalry on the wings. Hunyadi recognized the danger and he pulled back his center army group towards the narrowing mouth of the valley, where his weakened wings received sufficient protection on the steep valley sides, there he reorganized the battle order of his army. The Ottomans already considered themselves victorious and rushed after the Hungarians.^[1]

The Hungarian heavy cavalary in middle-ward of Hunyadi's army hold the line in the valley, meantime the war wagons suddenly appeared along valley edges and supported the light infantry who ambushed the Ottomans on the wings from the mountains. This sudden unexpected counter-attack confused the Ottoman army and Şehabeddin, who had no time and place to sufficiently unfold his army which was crowded in the narrow valley. In these circumstances, Hunyadi ordered his heavy cavalry on the center to attack again, which lead the Ottoman army into a catastrophic situation because it was surrounded on three sides. The Ottoman units at the front seeking shelter from the sabers of the Hungarian heavy cavalry pushed back those who are behind. This also caused the disintegration of the further back Ottoman battle lines, and the crowded Ottoman units behind did not know what happen at the front. At the same time, the Hungarian light cavalry also attacked on both sides of the Ottomans together with the war wagons. The war wagon usage deeply impressed the Ottomans which was unusual and novelty for them. The Ottoman troops became confused by this pressure and they started to flee, however they did not find shelter. The heavy cavalry of Hunyadi constantly pushed the Ottoman units at the front cutting down this pressed human mass in a narrow space, who also crushed each other. The Hungarian light infantry and the war wagons slaughtered the Ottomans on the two wings and finally the light Hungarian cavalry chased the fleeing Turks. Therefore almost half of the Ottoman army perished on the battlefield, and only the other half was able to cross the Danube river again to reach the Ottoman territory.^[1] Some Ottoman sources state all 16 sanjak beys were killed, equalling the loss of around half of the sanjak beys in the Ottoman empire.^[11] The Hungarians took 5,000 prisoners and 200 flags.^[1]

We see Hunyadi ’s abilities in this regard at the Battle of Battaszek , where he used scouts to determine the enemy army’s composition and location. Based on this information he was able to achieve complete sur prise and successfully defeat Garai ’s numerically superior forces. He employed the same tactic against Ishak Bey in 1441, Mezid Bey in early 1442 and most dramatically against Şehabeddin later that same year.^[35]

The Turkish raiding detachments around Temesvár could no longer join the defeated main Ottoman army. They were partly slaughtered and routed, partly captured, and their booty and prisoners were seized.^[1]

Numerous camels were retrieved by Hunyadi’s men at the defeat of Şehabeddin ın 1442.

Three days after the battle, John Hunyadi and the Hungarian army marched into Wallachia, where Hunyadi chased out Voivode Vlad II Dracul t, who was suspected of helping the advance of the Ottomans, and replaced him with Dan, who killed all of relatives of Vlad.

Hunyadi gained a huge booty. He put lots of treasures and weapons on a wagon that ten horses could hardly pull and sent it to King Vladislaus I of Hungary to Buda.

The name of the Hungarians and especially Hunyadi was feared by the entire Ottoman Empire, and became famous and generally respected in the Christian world.

The plunder seized was enormous. In his haste to retreat Şehabeddin had left the majority of his camp possessions, to include “5,000 camels and innumerable horses.”

Hunyadi ’s defeat against Şehabeddin and a large portion of the Ottoman army constituted this talented general’s greatest battlefield victory, second only to the 1456 defense of Belgrade in terms of his greatest military accomplishment.

According to a Hungarian royal charter from 1453, "the ancient glory and reputation of the Hungarian nation have been restored" by this battle.^[1]

After the victory over Şehabeddin Pasha, exploiting the confusion in the Ottoman ranks, Hunyadi invaded Bulgaria, burned the town of Vidin, and returned with a significant booty and a large number of liberated Christians.^[17]

In the year of 1442, John Hunyadi won four victories against the Ottomans, two of which were decisive.^[2] In March 1442, Hunyadi defeated Mezid Bey and the raiding Ottoman army in the south part of the Kingdom of Hungary in Transylvania.^[2] In September 1442, Hunyadi defeated a large Ottoman army of Beylerbey Şehabeddin, the Provincial Governor of Rumelia. This was the first time that a European army defeated such a large Ottoman force, composed not only of raiders, but of the provincial cavalry led by their own sanjak beys (governors) and accompanied by the formidable janissaries.^[2] These victories made Hunyadi a prominent enemy of the Ottomans and a renowned figure throughout Christendom and were prime motivators for him to undertake along with King Władysław the famous expedition known as the "Long Campaign" in 1443, with the Battle of Niš being the first major clash of this expedition. Hunyadi was accompanied by Giuliano Cesarini during the campaign.^[36][2]

John Hunyadi and his 15,000 men defeated the 80,000-strong army of Beylerbey Şehabeddin in the Iron Gate Pass at Zajkány (today's Zeicani) in Hunyad county in the Kingdom of Hungary.^[5][1]

Cartledge, Engel, teke: átnézni

• Babinger, Franz (1978). Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09900-6.
• Cartledge, Bryan (2011). The Will to Survive: A History of Hungary. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-84904-112-6.
• Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526. I.B. Tauris Publishers. ISBN 1-86064-061-3.
• Jefferson, John (2012). The Holy Wars of King Wladislas and Sultan Murad: The Ottoman-Christian Conflict from 1438–1444. Leiden: Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-21904-5.
• Mureșanu, Camil (2021). John Hunyadi Defender of Christendom. Las Vegas: The Center for Romanian Studies, Histria Books. ISBN 978-1-59211-012-4.
• Pálosfalvi, Tamás (2018). From Nicopolis to Mohács: A History of Ottoman-Hungarian Warfare, 1389–1526. The Ottoman Empire and Its Heritage: Politics, Society and Economy 63. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-37565-9.
• Teke, Zsuzsa (1980). Hunyadi János és kora [John Hunyadi and his Times] (in Hungarian). Gondolat. ISBN 963-280-951-3.
• Turnbull, Stephen (2003). The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699. Essential Histories. New York, London: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781841765693.