Časlav

The history of the Serbian principalities and the Vlastimirović dynasty is known from the De Administrando Imperio (DAI) compiled by Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (r.  913–959) between 948 and 952.^[1] Part of the data collected by Constantine VII came from the Serbs themselves, and it is likely Časlav's diplomatic envoy informed the Byzantine court of Romanos and Constantine VII on Serbian affairs.^[2] Serbia and Bulgaria came into contact in the mid-9th century, and Bulgaria had up until then expanded their territory in the Balkan interior by taking Byzantine territory.^[3] Byzantium and Bulgaria also had a rivalry regarding influence on the peoples in the central Balkans.^[3] The DAI speaks of changing outcomes in 9th-century Bulgar–Serb conflicts, which themselves were a consequence and reflection of the Byzantine–Bulgarian wars.^[3] When Serbian ruler Vlastimir died, the rule of Serbia was divided among his sons Mutimir, Strojimir and Gojnik.^[4] The division of land shows patrimonialism in the ruling family, also found among some other early medieval peoples; while the territory of each brother is unknown, Mutimir, as the oldest, would have primacy among the three.^[5]

Some time after the Bulgar–Serb war, the three sons of Vlastimir came into conflict and Mutimir captured his two brothers and expelled them to Bulgaria.^[6] Strojimir and Gojnik were thus stripped of their rule and sent as political hostages, and this is dated to 855/856^[7] or the 860s.^[8] The golden seal of Strojimir has survived, and it features a cross and the Greek inscription of his name.^[9] Strojimir's son, Klonimir (born c. 850^[10]), wed a Bulgarian noblewoman, the marriage initiated by the Bulgar khan Boris,^[11] as to connect the Serbian dynasty to the Bulgarian court.^[12] It is possible that the noblewoman belonged to the family of Bulgarian boyar Časlav (Greek: Τζασελάβος) who received Methodios' disciples that were expelled from Moravia following his death (885).^[11]

Časlav was born before 889,^[13] according to T. Živković in the 870s, likely at the Bulgarian capital Pliska where political hostages were supervised near the court.^[14] When Simeon I succeeded the throne in 893 and transferred the capital to Preslav, most likely Časlav also moved there.^[12] His father Klonimir tried to take the Serbian throne from his cousin Petar Gojniković, and managed to take the city of Destinikon, but failed and was killed in 897.^[15] Petar ruled Serbia with friendly relations to both Bulgaria and Byzantium, and Časlav did not yet have the opportunity to wrest the throne, although he could at any time be used by the Bulgars to claim it.^[12]

In 921, Byzantine emperor Romanos Lekapenos (r.  920–944) sent Zaharija to take the Serbian throne from Pavle, but he failed, and then succeeded with the help of the Bulgars, whom he then turned against.^[16] Some time between 921 and 923, Zaharija fought off a Bulgarian invasion and sent the heads and weapons of two slain commanders to the Byzantine emperor.^[17] In 925/926 Simeon sent a large army against Serbia under the command of Bulgar boyars with the ranks of kavkhan, minik and ichirgu-boila (as he had done against Constantinople in 923), which Časlav, and this campaign would have a decisive outcome for Serbia and its role in the Byzantine–Bulgarian war.^[18] Fearing the larger Bulgarian army, considerably larger than the previous one, Zaharija fled to Croatia.^[19]

It was a punitive expedition meant to destroy the Serbian state administration.^[20] After Zaharija's flight, the Bulgars called on the Serbian župani to accept Časlav as the archon (μηνύσαντες τοῖς ζουπάνοις ἐλθεῖν πρὸς αὐτοὺς καὶ παραλαβεῖν ἄρχοντα τὸν Τζεέσθλαβον).^[19] This shows the political organization as the archon (or in Serbian, knez) had župani under him that needed to accept and recognize him, and perhaps took an oath of allegiance.^[19] The Bulgars however had no intention to appoint a new Serbian ruler, and used Časlav as a lure to capture the župani and Časlav and sent them to captivity in Bulgaria.^[19] Serbia was devastated and part of the people were enslaved and sent to Bulgaria, and some found refuge in Croatia.^[21] Serbia came under nominal Bulgarian rule, and was not integrated into the territorial system nor militarily or administratively occupied.^[22] As Simeon's policy in supporting candidates in Serbia had failed previously, he simply subjected Serbia without appointing Časlav, perhaps partially motivated by the strained relations with Croatia.^[23] The Bulgar cause of next attacking Croatia was possibly due to it being the safe haven of the exiled Serbian ruler and part of the population, and also as a counter-measure to a potential Byzantine–Croatian alliance.^[24] It perhaps simply was meant to pursue Zaharija and the remnant of his army.^[20] In 926 or 927, the Bulgarian army invaded and was completely destroyed in Croatia.^[17]

Časlav fled Bulgaria with "four followers", likely Serbian župani captured in the earlier Bulgar devastation,^[25] and took the Serbian throne without the consent of the Bulgar ruler (suggesting participation in the anti-Bulgarian camp),^[26] and was helped by Byzantine emperor Romanos who also collected Serbian refugees and transferred them to Serbia.^[27] Časlav sent letters to Romanos, portraying Serbia as devastated, and asking for support and swearing loyalty, as his predecessors.^[28] Časlav recognized the supreme rule of Romanos and was recognized as archon of Serbia (καὶ ἄρχων ἐν αὐτῇ βεβαιωθείς).^[29][b] As such, he held the precedence in all of the Serbian principalities.^[30] Časlav thus returned to his fatherland where he had not lived, except for a short stay during the campaign against Zaharije.^[31] The DAI tells that Časlav "organized and settled the country", thanks to his wise politics and help from Romanos.^[32] Romanos is described as making "numerous good deeds" to Časlav, most likely meaning that there were many letters and decisions between them, and that it lasted a certain time.^[28] As Serbia had been simply devastated by the Bulgars, and not occupied, Časlav's initial tasks were to settle in as ruler and populate it.^[22]

The dating of Časlav's accession has been variously interpreted, but is most recently concluded to have been in 927/928.^[c] Beginning his rule in 927/928, following the death of Simeon (27 May 927), meant he used that as an opportunity and it goes in line with the events.^[33] Other sources record that "after learning of Simeon's death, the surrounding peoples, Croats, Turks [Magyars] and others (οἵ τε Χρωβάτοι οἱ Τοῦρκοι καὶ οἱ λοιποί) decided to war against the Bulgars", and Bulgaria was caught in a great famine and various plagues struck.^[31] Simeon's successor Peter I (r.  927–969) was thus forced to sign peace with Romanos, and on 10 October 927 it was finalized with the marriage of Peter I with Romanos' granddaughter.^[31] The Byzantine–Bulgarian peace of 927 gave way to strengthening of Byzantine influence in the Central Balkans, which is evident also from archaeological material, and it is in these circumstances that Časlav found himself.^[34] One of the results of the peace certainly was the establishment of relations between Časlav and Romanos.^[35] During the reign of Peter I, Byzantine–Bulgarian relations were positive, and Peter I was recognized by Byzantium; T. Živković positioned Časlav's accession as a possible joint Byzantine–Bulgarian political decision, with the agreement to not enthrone any other candidate.^[36] The support for Časlav from Romanos points to an Imperial plan to elevate and strengthen Serbia, as a result of the threats north of the Danube and Sava from the warlike Magyars.^[37]

In light of the Magyar threat to Byzantium and Bulgaria, Časlav as a Byzantine ally would have the role of defending the area south of the Sava and Danube, and he might also have fallen in battle;^[38] in fighting the Magyars, Časlav would have been supported by both Byzantium and Bulgaria.^[39][d] It is known that the Magyars raided Byzantine territory in 933 and again in 943.^[40] For a decade, the Magyars did not raid south of the Danube and Sava, and perhaps, Časlav was the cause of stopping those operations.^[41] T. Živković (who dated Časlav accession to 933/934), puts his reign in the context of the Magyar raids on Byzantium, and believed Časlav was chosen to deal with them on the initiative of Byzantium.^[41] Časlav could have been alive during the 943 Magyar incursion, and failed to stop it.^[30]

All the data on Časlav are connected to the reign of Romanos, and as such, in all probability, were recorded prior to Romanos' ousting in December 944.^[42] T. Živković deemed it certain that Časlav was deceased in 944, when Constantine VII succeeded as senior emperor, as he did not mention Časlav as his contemporary or benefactor.^[28] The DAI mentions Časlav as obeying Romanos, and make no explicit mention of this regarding Constantine VII who compiled the DAI itself and succeeded the throne in January 945.^[30] Časlav is taken either to have died in 943/944,^[43] or at an unknown date.^[35]

There is a legend in the later Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja (LPD) regarding a Magyar-Serbian conflict in which a Serbian ruler named Časlav participated.^[44] The LPD is deemed an unreliable source for the early Middle ages, with accounts based on folklore, and with gross chronological and genealogical inconsistencies, the personal names, however, tend to be true.^[45] It mentions the ruler Časlav, portrayed as a very significant ruler, who together with "his father king Radoslav" (found in the DAI as an earlier ruler^[46]) successfully fought with "White Croatia" (that is, west Croatia^[47]) and then ousted his father.^[48] Next, Magyar chieftain Kys (Serbian: Kiša) raided and devastated Bosnia (which was an integral part of Serbia) and clashed with Časlav in the Drina župa (county), next to the river, at the location of Civedino (identified as Cvilin in the upper Drina near Foča) where Kys fell.^[49] For distinction, Časlav gave Tihomil, who slew Kys, the administration of Drina and wed him with the daughter of the ban of "Raška".^[50] Kys' widow was then given troops by the Magyar king to avenge him, and entered Syrmia (identified as Mačva) where Časlav was captured and thrown bound by the hands and feet into the Sava river.^[51] Historiography mostly agrees that DAI's Časlav and LPD's Časlav are one and the same,^[52] and analysis of the events point to the mid-10th century.^[53]

In the Gesta Hungarorum, there is a story that the Hungarians subjugated the land of Raška (Serbia) at the time of Árpád (r.  c.895–c.907), and for long held the Serbian ruler imprisoned in chains (Latin: ...et ducem eius captum diu ferro ligatum tenuerunt...code: lat promoted to code: la ); while this points to the Serbian ruler Petar (r.  892–917/918), the author's tendency to attribute Pannonian operations to Árpád's time and the fact that Petar had friendly relations with the Magyars, it is more likely that the ruler in question is Časlav, who is also similarly described in LPD (Latin: ...et captus est rex Ciaslavus et omnes parentes illius... ligatis manibus et pedibus...code: lat promoted to code: la ).^[54] This shows there was a tradition of a Magyar-Serbian conflict, which received literary expression following two centuries.^[54]

After DAI's account on Časlav, Serbia is presented as an organized territorial unit with "inhabited cities" (Greek: ...ἐν τῇ βαπτισμένῃ Σερβλίᾳ εἰσιν κάστρα οἰκούμενα...).^[32] The description is made of Serbia at the time of Constantine VII, while the history of "baptized Serbia" in chapter 32 implies a wider Serbia.^[55] It is unclear what territorial changes Serbia went through, but the DAI speaks of Serb tribes in south Dalmatia, "baptized Serbia", and Simeon's attack on "today's Serbia".^[56] At the time of the DAI, the political organization was not determined on territory, but on people (gens or "tribe").^[57] The DAI usually used the title "archon of Serbia" (ὁ ἄρχων Σερβλίας), while De Ceremoniis (946) used "archon of Serbs" (εἰς τὸν ἄρχοντα Σέρβλων); these were likely synonyms.^[22]

The information on Serbia as a political entity in the 10th century ends with De Administrando Imperio and Serbian ruler Časlav, and there are no contemporary information on affairs in the Serbian state among Byzantine authors until the mid-11th century.^[87] Up until the mid-10th century, Byzantium focused on the East, which is why literary focus intensified only in the late 10th- and early 11th centuries with the northern campaigns to the Danube.^[3] In the book of ceremonial protocol De Ceremoniis (946), the Serbian archon is listed among rulers whom the emperors send their "commandment" (Greek: κέλευσις), as their "Christ-loving lords".^[88] From the LPD it seems that Serbia disintegrated with infighting among the nobility.^[61] According to T. Živković, it also seems that Bosnia began to separate as a political unit.^[89] Bulgaria was conquered in 971 and the Byzantine empire now again stretched to the Danube.^[90] The Byzantines established control over Ras, evident in the survived seal of protospatharios and katepano John of Ras.^[91] The LPD claims that after the death of Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes (976), there was a rebellion instigated by the ruler of Duklja, after which "all of Rascia" (Serbia) came under his rule.^[92] There was a Bulgarian uprising in the following decade led by the Kometopouloi brothers that led to the control of vast territory of the former Bulgarian empire, spreading to the Danube banks, including the region of Morava and Braničevo.^[93] It is probable that after the Kometopouloi rebellion, the ruler of Duklja took the opportunity to expand into Serbia in the hinterland.^[92]

Serbian deputies to the Byzantine emperor (Greek: σέρβους κρατηθήναι) are mentioned in an Athonite charter dated 993.^[94] The seal of Peter, komistes (guardian) and archon of Serbia dating to the beginning of the 11th century, speaks of an hitherto unknown Byzantine vassal and Serbian ruler, prior to the officials (patrikios, vestarches, protospatharios, strategos) of the theme of Serbia in the 11th century.^[95] Until 1016, Duklja and parts of the Serbian hinterland were ruled by Jovan Vladimir, as Skylitzes mentions him "governing Triballia and neighbouring regions of Serbia" ("Τριβαλίας καὶ τῶν ἀγχοτάτω Σερβίας μερῶν ἦρχε Βλαδιμιρός").^[96]

Stevan Sremac (1855–1906) authored the historic novel series Iz knjiga starostavnih, which includes the Vlastimirović dynasty (and Časlav) as characters.^[97][98] Sremac authored Veliki župan Časlav in 1903.^[99] Petar J. Vasić wrote an epic poem about Časlav included in the collection Pesme o srpskim junacima ("Songs about Serb heroes", 1988).^[100]

There are many streets named after him, such as in Savski Venac, Borča, Guncati, Mladenovac, Mala Vranjska, Šabac, Babina Luka, Sinošević, Vinorača, Užice, Parunovac, Mramorski Potok.^[101]

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