1978 Truth Criterion Controversy
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The 1978 Truth Criterion Controversy (Chinese: 真理标准大讨论; lit. 'Debate on Standards for Judging the Truth'), also known as the 1978 Truth Criterion Discussion, sometimes referred to as the First Great Debate (Chinese: 第一次大争论) in contemporary China, was a sociopolitical debate around 1978, mainly revolving around Hua Guofeng's "Two Whatevers" and Deng Xiaoping's "Reform and opening up". The debate was also the origin of the "New Enlightenment" in mainland China in the 1980s.[1][2]
The core debate centered on what should be the criterion for determining truth:
- "Two Whatevers" — This slogan emphasized that Mao's directives were the ultimate truth guide, focusing on political-ideological authority.
- "Practice is the sole criterion" — This stance highlighted empirical outcomes and social practice as the true tests of validity.
- Hybrid views — Some proposals sought to blend theory and practice, encouraging a broader interpretation of Mao's thought beyond isolated quotes, while stressing the importance of "seeking truth from facts."
End of Cultural Revolution
Death of Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong, organizer of the Cultural Revolution and then Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), died on September 9, 1976, at the age of 82, which caused a power vacuum within the CCP.[3] As Mao hadn't chosen an official successor and after conflicts between various factions emerged during and after the Cultural Revolution, Hua Guofeng, a moderate Maoist, held the position of chairman.[4]
Arrest of the Gang of Four
One month after Mao's death, Hua Guofeng together with Ye Jianying and Wang Dongxing arrested the radical faction Gang of Four, which is generally thought to have put an end to the Cultural Revolution.[5] Beginning on 21 October, nationwide denunciations of the Gang of Four occurred, which culminated in the December release of files related to the Gang's alleged crimes to the public. The Party issued a denunciation of the Gang as "ultra-left", which was "left in form, right in essence".[6] A broader purge targeting radicals was initiated to discredit their ideologies and policies later.[7]
Members of the Gang of Four were charged with "counterrevolutionary activities" three years later, while few of them compromised.[8] Jiang Qing, a member of the Gang of Four and the widow of Mao, shouted "Revolution is no crime!" against the charge during the trial.[9] The trial has also been accused of being a "show trial" due to its political motivations.[10]
Mao's legacies
Maoist ideologies and policies
At the time of Mao's death, China's society and culture were seriously impacted by the Cultural Revolution.[11] It is estimated tens of millions was persecuted during the Cultural Revolution.[12] The economy of China was thought to be weak, if not collapsed.[13] However, Mao's thoughts and policies still undergirded the Chinese society.[14] As nearly half the CCP members were recruited as "leftists" during the Cultural Revolution, some feared the radicals could recapture the power.[15]
Deng Xiaoping, one promoter of the Controversy, had already been denounced as a "capitalist roader" during the Cultural Revolution. Deng had been purged twice and promised to Mao and the Central Committee twice that he would "never ever reverse the verdict" as a "capitalist roader". However, Deng attempted to reverse the radical tide during the Cultural Revolution in 1975, which was bluntly rebuffed by Mao. Mao later reiterated "...'never ever reverse the verdict' just cannot be trusted!"[16] In April 1976, after the 1976 Tiananmen Incident, Mao dismissed Deng for the third time, which led to the "Criticize Deng, Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend" campaign initiated by the Gang of Four.[17]
"Two Whatevers"
"Two Whatevers" refers to a slogan associated with the Gang of Four, "Whatever Chairman Mao had said or done was correct." Though the members of the Gang of Four were arrested in 1976, Hua, as Mao's successor, continued to advocate the slogan in opposition to Deng's market reform. Centered around the slogan, Hua's supporters and the remaining leftists formed the "Whateverist Faction".[18]