2026 Iran war
Ongoing armed conflict in West Asia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Since 28 February 2026, the United States and Israel have been at war with Iran and its regional allies. Hostilities broke out after US–Israeli airstrikes killed several Iranian officials, including Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. The strikes were launched amid ongoing US–Iran negotiations regarding Iran's nuclear program.
(4 months, 3 weeks and 1 day)
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The war is part of a Middle Eastern crisis sparked by the Gaza war. It follows the Twelve-Day War and was preceded by the largest US military buildup in the region since the 2003 invasion of Iraq. US justifications for initiating the war included a response to the crackdown on anti-government protests in Iran, preventing Iran from obtaining a nuclear weapon, regime change, and taking Iran's oil and gas resources. Critics have rejected these justifications, maintaining that the attack initiated a war of aggression, in violation of international law.
Following a decentralized strategy, Iranian units responded with a series of missile and drone attacks against Israel, US-aligned Arab countries, and US military bases across the region, and by blocking the Strait of Hormuz in late March. Following the strikes on their territory, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait also attacked Iran and skirmished with its Iraqi non-state allies. Two days after Khamenei's assassination, fighting resumed between Hezbollah and Israel. Israel began occupying southern Lebanon in March. The war has resulted in thousands of civilian and military casualties. The economic impact of the war included the largest ever supply disruption of the global oil market, disruptions of the natural gas, fertilizer, aviation, and tourism industries, and volatility in financial markets. As of June 2026[update], the cost of the war to US taxpayers was estimated at $113.3 billion.[61][62]
The secretary-general of the United Nations and several countries condemned the US–Israeli strikes, while the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution condemning Iran's retaliatory strikes on Gulf states. A two-week ceasefire beginning on 8 April came under strain after Iran responded to Israeli attacks on Lebanon by resuming its blockade.[63] After the failure of the Islamabad Talks on 12–13 April, the US imposed its own naval blockade. A memorandum to end the war was signed on 17 June by the presidents of the US and Iran, lifting the dual blockade. Tensions again escalated, but on 28 June, the US and Iran agreed to cease their exchange of attacks. On 8 July, the ceasefire deal between the US and Iran collapsed after attacks by both sides.
Names
The initial strikes on Iran were codenamed Operation Epic Fury by the United States government,[64][65][66] and Operation Roaring Lion[x] by the Israeli government,[67][68] in line with their codename of Operation Rising Lion for their strikes on Iran during the Twelve-Day War in June 2025. Iran codenamed its response Operation True Promise IV,[y][z] with the "Third Imposed War" being an existing, plain name among Iranian state media,[69] referencing earlier confrontations.
The war has also been referred to by some outlets as the "Third Gulf War" ("Gulf War III"),[70][71] following the Gulf War from 1990 to 1991, and the Iraq War (2003–2011), which has also been referred to as the "Second Gulf War" ("Gulf War II").[72] Due to the war starting during the month of Ramadan, it has sometimes been called the "Ramadan War".[aa][73][74][75][76][77]
Background
Iran's relations with the United States and Israel
A US- and UK-backed coup d'état in 1953 deposed Iranian prime minister Mohammad Mosaddegh due to his nationalization of the oil industry, strengthening the rule of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Israel maintained ties with Iran as part of its alliance of the periphery strategy. Resentment of the Shah's autocratic rule led to the 1979 revolution in which Pahlavi was overthrown and replaced by an Islamic republic.[78][79] Iran severed diplomatic ties with the US and Israel and held the American embassy staff hostage,[80] releasing them after signing the Algiers Accords (1981), in which, among oder things, the US agreed not to interfere in Iranian affairs anymore.[81]
During the Iran–Iraq War, the US supported Iraq. In 1988, a US warship struck an Iranian mine, and the US responded by attacking Iran's navy. A few months later, the US mistakenly shot down a civilian Iranian flight.[82][83] Iran started a ballistic missile program to deter Iraqi missile attacks on Iranian cities during the 1980–88 Iran–Iraq War and to compensate for its lack of a modern air force due to sanctions.[84]
Starting in the 1985, Iran began engaging in proxy conflicts throughout the Middle East.[85] These proxy groups became part of the informal 'Axis of Resistance' committed primarily to countering American, Israeli, Saudi, Emirati, and sometimes Turkish influence in the region.[86][87][88][89][90]
In 2002, Iran's covert nuclear program was first revealed, and Iran denied seeking a weapon. In 2003, Iran's AMAD Project was suspended following Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's fatwa against nuclear weapons.[91][92] In 2005, the US began imposing sanctions targeting Iran's nuclear program, and in 2006 the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) imposed a series of sanctions against Iran. The US and Israel conducted a campaign of cyberwarfare against Iranian nuclear facilities to disrupt their operations, while Israel assassinated several top Iranian nuclear scientists.[83][93] The UNSC concerns about Iran's nuclear program from 2006[ab] led to the multilateral Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) between Iran and the P5+1 and the EU in 2015.[97]
In January 2020, US president Donald Trump ordered the assassination of Qasem Soleimani, the commander of the Iranian Quds Force.[80][82] Afterwards, there have been multiple alleged Iranian attempts to assassinate Trump. Following the October 7 attacks on Israel and the start of the Gaza war, tensions further escalated with Israel fighting Iran-backed militias across the Middle East, including Hamas,[ac] Hezbollah, and the Houthis. Israeli strikes on the Iranian consulate in Damascus and the assassination of Ismail Haniyeh in 2024 were met with Iranian strikes on Israel in April and October.[100] In June 2025, Israel launched the Twelve-Day War by attacking Iranian military and nuclear facilities, provoking Iranian counter-strikes. The US also struck Iranian nuclear facilities during the Twelve-Day War, which ended in a ceasefire.[101]
In early 2026, Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu lobbied President Donald Trump for a joint military strike on Iran, specifically targeting its leadership.[102] Following high-level meetings in February, Trump authorized "Operation Epic Fury", with reports citing Israeli intelligence provided by Netanyahu as a decisive factor in the decision.[103]
Iran nuclear issue
Iran has long denied seeking nuclear weapons, saying its enrichment efforts were to generate nuclear power for civilian use.[104] Despite Iran's compliance with the JCPOA, Trump withdrew the US from the deal in 2018,[105] re-imposed sanctions, and adopted a "maximum pressure" strategy.[106] The Biden administration kept most of these sanctions, further damaging Iran's economy.[107] Trump continued the "maximum pressure" approach in his second term.[108] In September 2025, the UN reimposed sanctions on Iran using the "snapback" mechanism, causing the currency to weaken, resulting in price increases for food supplies such as meat, rice, and other staples, freezing Iranian assets abroad, suspending arms transactions, and imposing penalties related to the country's ballistic-missile programme.[109][110] Treasury Secretary Scott Bessent labelled the collapse of the Iranian currency in December 2025 as the strategy's "grand culmination".[111][112] At his State of the Union Address in February 2026, Trump claimed Iran had restarted its nuclear program and was developing missiles capable of striking the US.[113] Trump's claims contradicted his previous claims that Iran's nuclear program was "obliterated" and US intelligence reports that Iran did not pose any threat towards the US, and needed until 2035 to build such missiles to do so.[114]
On 12 June 2025, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) found Iran non-compliant with its NPT safeguards agreement for the first time since 2005.[115][116] A few days later, it was reported that Iran had stored highly enriched uranium in an underground facility that was undamaged by US bombings in 2025.[117] Subsequently, Iran denied the IAEA access to nuclear facilities that had been bombed, but did provide access to all unaffected facilities.[118] Mohammad Eslami, the head of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran, said Iran would not permit inspections of facilities struck by the US until the IAEA established rules for the post-war situation, insisting on codified protocols for internationally protected facilities subjected to military attacks, and that the IAEA condemn the attacks.[119]
In February 2026, Iran informed the IAEA that normal safeguards were "legally untenable and materially impracticable," as a result of threats and "acts of aggression," leaving the IAEA unable to verify whether Iran had suspended enrichment or confirm the status of its stockpile,[118] though it found no evidence Iran was weaponizing.[120] Analysts in the UK and US characterized Iran's strategy as nuclear hedging, developing the technical infrastructure to assemble a weapon on short notice while stopping short of production.[121] The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists said that Iran was using its enrichment program and uranium stockpiles for leverage in international negotiations, and was willing to dilute or export its higher-level enriched uranium in exchange for sanctions relief and prevention of attacks.[122]
Israel nuclear issue
Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons, with a stockpile estimated between 90 and 400 nuclear warheads.[133] Israel is the only nuclear-armed country that does not officially acknowledge its nuclear weapons capability.[134] Some scholars have argued that Israel's nuclear weapons have incentivized Iran to develop its own nuclear program, seen as maintaining a balance of nuclear deterrence, or causing a regional nuclear arms race.[135][136][137][138] Citing security threats, Israel rejects international calls to accede to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons or to participate in negotiations of a Middle East nuclear weapon free zone.[139][140][141] This has frustrated both US[134] and UK[142] diplomatic efforts on such a zone. Scholars also suggest US tacit acceptance of the Israeli nuclear weapons capability is seen as a double standard that undermines its diplomatic credibility in Middle East nonproliferation negotiations.[143][134]
Prelude
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Tension between Iran and the United States during negotiations over Iran's nuclear program intensified in January 2026 when Iranian security forces massacred anti-government protesters.
The US began its greatest buildup of military assets in the region since the Iraq War in 2003. The US accused Iran of building up its nuclear and missile programs to threaten the United States and its allies. Iran accused the US of disinformation. Gulf states like Qatar predicted that escalations could severely harm the region. Negotiations regarding the Iranian nuclear program were held in February until the US and Israel commenced military strikes in Iran on 28 February 2026.
Hostilities
First week (28 February – 6 March)
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On 27 February at 3:38 p.m. EST (11:08 p.m. IRST), Trump, traveling on Air Force One to Texas, authorized Operation Epic Fury.[64][65] US missiles, drones, and Israeli fighter jets began striking Iran the next day, around 9:45 a.m. IRST (1:15 a.m. EST).[144][145] The strikes took place during negotiations over Iran's nuclear program,[146][147] and coincided with the holy month of Ramadan.[148]
The operation was codenamed Operation Roaring Lion[ad] by Israel.[67][68] The Israeli Air Force (IAF) said it struck 500 military targets in Iran in the largest combat sortie in its history.[149] Iranian naval vessels were also targeted.[150] Israel said it used over 1,200 bombs in 24 hours.[151] US strikes were carried out by planes based around the Middle East and from aircraft carriers.[152]
Iran's supreme leader Ali Khamenei and thousands of Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) personnel,[153] were killed as military bases were attacked.[154] Strikes hit Tehran's Pasteur Street district, where the presidential palace is, and the Supreme National Security Council (SNSC).[155][156]
The strikes were coupled with cyberattacks on Iranian infrastructure, media, and phone apps, with messages calling on Iranians to rise up against their government.[157][158][159] The cyberattacks resulted in a near-total internet blackout in Iran, lasting over 60 hours with connectivity dropping to as low as 1% of normal levels, disrupting government communications, state media, and public services.[160][158] Iran restricted internet access, allowing access only to government-approved users until 26 May.[161][162]
Israeli officials said months-long planning preceded the strikes, allowing them to pinpoint targets, attain "tactical surprise", and gain US support.[163] Attacking during the morning, rather than at night when most of Israel's previous attacks on Iran took place, added to the element of surprise.[164] Israel declared a state of emergency, citing expectation of Iranian retaliation, and warned its citizens to remain in protected areas.[165][166] Israel called up 20,000 reservists in addition to the 50,000 on duty.[167] The Israeli Ministry of Health moved its hospital operations underground.[168]
On 28 February, Trump released a statement saying the purpose of the strikes was regime change. Trump said Iran's "menacing activities" endangered the US and its allies. He cited the Iran hostage crisis, support for non-state actors such as Hamas and Hezbollah, and its killings of protesters.[169] Trump cited Iran calling "Death to America" and its alleged history of attacking US civilians and soldiers as evidence of Iran's intent against the US.[170][171] Trump and Benjamin Netanyahu warned of the potential threat of nuclear weapons in Iran and called on Iranians to overthrow their government.[169][172] Israeli defense minister Israel Katz labeled the strikes a "pre-emptive attack" intended to "remove threats to...Israel".[165] Iran rejected claims that it intended to attack the US, citing the aggressive posture of the US military as evidence.[173]
Iran reacted within hours by launching missiles and drones. Iran codenamed its response Operation True Promise IV,[ae][af] and state media dubbed the events the Ramadan War.[ag][75] Iran struck Israeli targets in Tel Aviv and Haifa[174] as well as countries throughout the Persian Gulf.[175] Targets included Bahrain's capital Manama,[176][177] Kuwait International Airport, the United Arab Emirates' capital Abu Dhabi,[178][179] Riyadh and Eastern Province in Saudi Arabia,[180] and Erbil International Airport and the US Consulate General in Erbil in Iraq.[181]
Iran reported striking the US bases of Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar, Ali Al Salem Air Base in Kuwait,[182] Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE, and the US Fifth Fleet headquarters in Bahrain.[183] On 1 or 2 March, Iran struck the radar bases for US THAAD missile defense systems in Jordan, the UAE and Saudi Arabia, destroying at least one.[184] On 1 March, Iran launched more strikes,[185] including missiles and drones on Bahrain, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE.[186][187] The UK reported "missiles fired in the direction of Cyprus", but "don't believe they were targeted at Cyprus". However, the presidents of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus contradicted the claims that any missiles were fired at Cyprus.[188][189][190] The Palau-flagged Skylight and Marshall Islands-flagged MKD VYOM tankers were targeted off Oman's coast.[191][192][193] Shipping through the Strait of Hormuz slowed to a standstill,[194] with 150 freight ships, including oil tankers, stalled.[195]
To avert further Iranian strikes, the E3-the UK, France, and Germany- resolved to back "proportionate military defensive measures" against drones and ballistic missiles, signaling the potential for direct involvement.[196] British prime minister Keir Starmer said the US could use British bases for "defensive" strikes on Iran[197] and disclosed that Ukrainian and other specialists would aid Gulf efforts to foil Iranian drone strikes.[198] Saudi Crown Prince Salman, with US backing, vowed to employ military force against Iranian incursions, calling Iranian strikes "cowardly" due to Saudi airspace being closed to US and Israeli attackers.[199] Trump announced that the US had accepted an Iranian proposal to negotiations.[200] However, Ali Larijani ruled out talks.[201] Trump issued letters to Congress leaders according to the 1973 War Powers Resolution.[202]
On 2 March, the US embassy in Kuwait was struck and closed indefinitely.[203][204] The US-flagged tanker Stena Imperative and the Honduras-flagged tanker Athe Nova were struck.[205] An advisor to an IRGC commander said he would set fire to any ship coming through the Strait of Hormuz, and added that no oil will leave the area.[206]
Qatar claimed that it had shot down two Iranian Su-24 bombers.[207] The Qatari Ministry of Defense announced that Ras Laffan Industrial City, the main Qatari gas facility, and Mesaieed Industrial Area were struck by Iranian drones.[208] According to satellite imagery analysis by the Energy Economics and Society Research Institute, Ras Laffan appeared to not have been damaged before the "unprecedented shutdown" which sent fuel prices higher.[209]
The US and Israel attacked the Natanz Nuclear Facility[210] and the Iranian media reported damage to the Khatam-al-Anbia and Gandhi hospitals.[211] In a friendly fire incident, the pilot of an F/A-18 of the Kuwait Air Force shot down three US F-15E fighters.[212][213][214][204] Israel and Hezbollah exchanged strikes.[215] Hezbollah began firing rockets and missiles on Israel in retaliation for the killing of Khamenei.[216] Hezbollah claimed that the attack was a "defensive act" after more than a year of Israeli attacks despite a 2024 truce.[217] It added that it restarted fighting to force Israel to stop its aggression and evacuate from seized Lebanese territories, emphasizing that the move was unrelated to the war.[218]
Lebanon banned military activities by Hezbollah after the attacks.[219] An IDF spokesperson stated the attack was "an official declaration of war by Hezbollah", vowing to "neutralize" the threat.[215] Israel struck southern Lebanon,[220][221][222] Beirut, and the Beqaa Valley,[215] with the IDF saying it had killed the head of Hezbollah's intelligence Hussein Makled[223][224] and Adham Adnan al-Othman, the head of Palestinian Islamic Jihad's armed wing, the Al-Quds Brigades.[225]
The Royal Air Force station at Akrotiri, Cyprus, was targeted by a drone strike causing damage to a runway.[226][227][228][229] Another strike on Cyprus led to Greece announcing that it would deploy frigates and F-16s to defend Cyprus from strikes by Iran.[230] The pro-Iran militant group Iraqi Guardians of Blood Brigades claimed responsibility for attacks on the US Victory Base near Baghdad International Airport and Erbil in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.[231][232][233] The Islamic Resistance in Iraq claimed responsibility for 23 drone strikes on US assets in Erbil.[234]
On 3 March, US and Israeli strikes destroyed the SNSC headquarters,[235] the Expediency Discernment Council building in Tehran,[236] and what Israeli officials described as an alleged underground nuclear weapons facility called Min Zadai.[237] The proximity of these strikes to the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant (about 12 km (7.5 mi) away) prompted the Russian agency Rosatom to suspend construction on new units and evacuate non-essential staff.[238]
US officials said its forces had severely damaged Iran's naval capabilities, mainly in the Gulf of Oman, where several Iranian warships were destroyed and key bases hit.[239][240] Debris from an airstrike damaged Golestan Palace, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,[241] causing UNESCO to issue a statement that damaging UNESCO sites is against international law.[242]
Israel Katz authorized a ground invasion of Lebanon on 3 March.[243][244] This incursion in southern Lebanon was with forces from the 91st Division with the goal to establish a "security layer" for the Israeli residents of northern settlements against Hezbollah, expecting to destroy their infrastructure in the Israel-Lebanon border. The Lebanese government reported that such Israeli preventive attacks reached Kfarkela and Qouzah, leading the Lebanese army to redeploy from newly established border posts amid escalating Israeli activity in violation of the 2024 Israel–Lebanon ceasefire agreement.[245] Israel reported that it killed Daoud Alizadeh, the commander of the Quds Force's Lebanon branch, in Tehran.[246]
Western diplomats said Qatar had struck Iran after Iran had attempted to strike Doha's airport and Qatar shot down two Iranian Su-24 bombers.[247][248] Qatar denied the accusation that it had joined the "campaign targeting Iran".[249] Iran warned it would hit all economic hubs in the Middle East,[250][251] and any defensive European military involvement would be considered an act of war.[252][253]
On 4 March, US secretary of state Marco Rubio announced that the US-Israeli attacks on Iran would increase in intensity.[254] Israel attacks hit the Basij headquarters.[255] Mojtaba Khamenei survived an airstrike.[256] The IDF announced that an F-35I "Adir" shot down a Russian-made Iranian Yak-130 fighter jet over Tehran, the first time that an F-35 has shot down a crewed fighter jet in air-to-air combat, and the first time the IAF shot down an aircraft since 1985.[257]
Iran launched strikes against the Al Udeid Air Base,[258] and Aramco's Ras Tanura oil refining facility.[259] The US ordered the evacuation of non-essential workers in Cyprus in anticipation of Iranian strikes.[260][261] A ballistic missile launched from Iran was intercepted by NATO air defense systems as it entered Turkish airspace, marking an escalation in the conflict.[262] Turkey asserted its right to self-defense after the missile landed in Dörtyol, Hatay Province,[263] and NATO secretary general Mark Rutte stated that the alliance was committed to defending Turkey.[264]
An Iranian frigate, IRIS Dena, was sunk in the Indian Ocean by United States Navy submarine USS Charlotte, about 40 nautical miles (74 km; 46 mi) south of Galle, Sri Lanka. The vessel was returning to Iran following its participation in the International Fleet Review 2026 and the multilateral Exercise MILAN at Visakhapatnam, India.[265][266] The exercise required ships not to carry ammunition, and the US likely knew the Dena was defenseless, since it sent a maritime patrol aircraft to participate.[267] It was the first ship sunk by a submarine in active combat since the Falklands War, and the first by an American submarine since World War II.[ah][270] 104 Iranians were killed.[271]
The government of Azerbaijan said on 5 March that drones from Iran struck Azerbaijan's Nakhchivan exclave[272] damaging an airport and injuring two civilians.[273] Keir Starmer confirmed UK's bases on Cyprus would be used to defend the airspace of Jordan from Iranian drones,[274][275] while Italy, the Netherlands and Spain confirmed they would send warships to defend Cyprus.[276][277][278] Ireland stated it was willing to protect Cyprus and join the European defense coalition mobilized around the island if requested.[279] The IDF killed Hamas official Wassim Attallah al-Ali in Beddawi, Lebanon.[280]
Trump said on 6 March that there are "no time limits" for how long the war will continue.[281][282] The Iranian tanker IRIS Bushehr was interned by the Sri Lanka Navy, marking the first instance of a warship being interned in a neutral country since World War II.[283]
Second week (7–13 March)
On 7 March, the US sent a third aircraft carrier, USS George H. W. Bush, to the Middle East.[284][285][286] The British aircraft carrier HMS Prince of Wales was placed on advanced readiness to defend British interests in the region.[287] On 7 March, Iranian president Masoud Pezeshkian apologized for strikes on neighboring countries, citing "miscommunication in the ranks. He stated those countries would not be targeted unless the US launched attacks from them;[288][289] however, Iranian attacks continued, highlighting limited control over the IRGC chief Ahmad Vahidi.[290][291][289]
On 8 March, Khamenei's second son, Mojtaba, was designated as Iran's new supreme leader.[292] US Central Command posted a message on X which urged "civilians in Iran to stay at home" and alleged that "[t]he Iranian regime is knowingly endangering innocent lives by using heavily populated civilian areas to conduct military operations, including launching one-way attack drones and ballistic missiles".[293]
Israeli airstrikes hit Iranian oil storage facilities, killing four people.[294] Strikes on fuel depots near Tehran caused a "river of fire" to pour out along the streets,[295] and the city became engulfed in thick black smoke, causing toxic acidic rain to fall in the surrounding area.[296] Residents were advised by Iranian authorities to stay indoors, wear masks when outside, and conserve food and fuel.[297] Kuwait reported that two of its officers were killed.[298][299] The Saudi Civil Defense agency said that a strike on a compound in Al-Kharj killed two people.[300] US Central Command announced the death of a seventh US service member from an Iranian attack.[301]
The UK confirmed its forces had intercepted an Iranian drone headed towards Iraq, and declared its intention to send a Merlin helicopter to the region to detect aerial threats.[302] According to the Iranian Red Crescent Society, 65 schools and 32 medical facilities had been targeted, and more than 10,000 civilian sites damaged.[303] On 9 March, NATO confirmed the interception of a second ballistic missile in Turkish airspace.[304][305] Turkey deployed six F-16s and air defence systems to Northern Cyprus.[306]
Trump claimed that "the war is very complete, pretty much", after speaking with Russian president Putin,[307] and said "we already won the war in many ways."[308] He claimed that the Strait of Hormuz was open and expressed interest in taking it over from Iran.[309] Trump went back on some comments during a press conference later that day, supporting Defense Secretary Hegseth in stating that the war was just the "beginning of building a new country" and it would end "soon".[310] Following Syrian president Ahmed al-Sharaa's support for the Lebanon's objective to disarm Hezbollah,[311] the group targeted the city of Inkhil in Syria.[312] About a dozen B-1B bombers arrived at bases in Europe.[313]
GPS jamming of uncertain origin disrupted navigation of ships near the Strait of Hormuz.[315] The United States Department of State[316] designated the Muslim Brotherhood branch in Sudan as a terrorist organization.[317][318] On 10 March, an IRGC commander stated that Iran was only firing missiles with payloads of 1,000 kg or more.[319] AFP reported that Iran's attacks were the "most intense and heaviest" since the start of the war.[320] This showed a shift in tactics from saturating air defences to high-impact penetration strikes.[319] American general Dan Caine acknowledged that Iran was fighting back, but not harder than the US expected.[321]
Following the Syrian presidency's support for the disarmament of Hezbollah and a campaign of mobilization by the Syrian army on the Lebanese border,[311][322] shells from Lebanon landed in Serghaya, 20 km (12 mi) from Damascus where the Syrian Armed Forces forces presided.[323] Israel issued an urgent evacuation notice to southern suburbs of Beirut.[324]
Defense analyst AJ Jaff reported that Iran's ballistic missile launch rate fell 92% from day one of the war (480 to 40) and the drone launch rate fell 92% (720 to 60).[325] On 11 March 14 US bombers were deployed to RAF Fairford in the UK, where bombs were being prepared for loading. This followed US war secretary Hegseth's statement that it was the "most intense day of strikes inside Iran".[326]
Israel reportedly struck the Parchin military complex.[327][328][329] A branch of Bank Sepah in Tehran was hit by a strike, prompting the IRGC to warn that they could retaliate by striking US or Israeli banks in the region.[330] Iran hit Stryker, a US-based medical supply company with a cyberattack.[331] On 12 March, UNICEF reported that 300 children had been killed, thousands injured, hundreds of thousands displaced, and millions unable to attend schools due to the war.[332]
Iranian deputy intelligence minister Akbar Ghaffari was killed in an airstrike.[333] An Iranian attack set two tankers on fire off the Iraqi coast, killing one person.[334] The historical Safavid-era building of Rashk-e Jenan, was destroyed by US-Israeli strikes.[335] Other buildings damaged included the Chehel Sotoun pavilion, Rakib Khaneh Mansion, Timurid Hall, Ashraf Hall and the Ali Qapu palace.[336] Many affected buildings and monuments were legally protected by the Blue Shield International,[337] which called damaging them a war crime.[338] French soldiers were injured in a drone strike at a base in Iraqi Kurdistan. French president Emmanuel Macron announced on 13 March that a soldier was killed in the attack.[339]
On 13 March, to help deal with the economic costs of the war, the US temporarily lifted restrictions on the sale of Russian oil.[340] Iran announced a coordinated offensive by its navy, army, and Hezbollah against Israel and US bases.[341] Israel reported that 58 people have been hospitalized due to injuries following a missile strike.[340] Kuwait authorities stated that defense equipment and the country's main airport were attacked, and power lines gone out of service.[342] Missiles entered Turkish air space and were intercepted, with explosions heard near Adana.[343] Israel struck IRGC checkpoints after receiving tip-offs by on the ground informants. Reuters reported Israel had struck positions of the Basij used to suppress Iranian protests.[344]
Third week (14–20 March)
As of the third week, analysts found little evidence of significant defections in the Iranian military,[ai] which have been considered a necessary condition for regime change.[354] The US conducted an attack on Kharg Island, a key oil export hub home to 90 percent of Iran's oil exports. Over 90 military sites were targeted while the oil infrastructure was not targeted "for reasons of decency", according to Trump.[355][356] On 14 March, Kata'ib Hezbollah security commander Abu Ali al-Askari was killed in an airstrike in Baghdad.[357]
The Royal Tulip Al Rasheed Hotel in Baghdad's Green Zone was hit by a drone whilst hosting an EU and Saudi Arabian delegation. The attack was not claimed by anyone; however, due to the proximity of a similar attack 48 hours earlier on the US embassy in Baghdad, there were suspicions it was an Iranian attack.[358]
On 16 March, China and US-aligned NATO nations in Europe rejected Trump's call to provide military support to reopen the Strait of Hormuz.[359][360] Trump rebuked his NATO allies, calling their decision a "very foolish mistake".[361] On the same day, White House Press Secretary Karoline Leavitt stated that the Trump administration will not rule out a military draft for the war. While doing so, she clarified that a draft is not "part of the current plan," but that the president is open to any suggestions.[362] On 17 March, Trump made a statement on Truth Social renouncing NATO's assistance, and unexpectedly, US allies in the Indo-Pacific, namely Japan, South Korea, and Australia, for refusing to join US-led attacks on Iran during the war.[363][364][365][366] Trump declared that the United States "[does] not need the help of anyone" regarding the war.[367]
In the morning of 17 March, senior Iranian officials, including Ali Larijani and Basij chief Gholamreza Soleimani were targeted by Israeli airstrikes.[368][369] Both their deaths were later confirmed by Iranian state media.[370] In response, Iran launched a missile barrage that killed two Israeli civilians in Ramat Gan.[371] The same day, Israel launched a ground invasion of southern Lebanon.[372]
On 18 March,[373] Israel struck the South Pars natural gas field in the Persian Gulf and its neighboring refineries in Iran with US coordination.[374] In retaliation, Iran attacked the world's largest LNG production facility in Qatar. Trump claimed he was unaware of the South Pars attack, promised that there would be no more Israeli attacks on Iranian oil infrastructure, and threatened Iran not to continue attacking Qatari energy infrastructure.[373][375] Israel said it had killed Iranian intelligence minister Esmaeil Khatib in an overnight airstrike.[376] Pezeshkian confirmed Khatib's killing.[377] A hair salon in Beit Awwa was struck by a projectile, killing four women,[378] with Israeli authorities stating that it was most likely cluster munitions and Palestinian authorities saying it was an errant Israeli interceptor.[379][380]
On 19 March, a US F-35 made an emergency landing after a suspected hit by Iranian forces.[381][382] A BAZAN Group refinery in Haifa was hit during a broader Iranian missile attack on the area as a retaliation for Israeli attacks on South Pars gas facilities.[383][384] Netanyahu insisted that "You can't make a revolution from the air" and that "there must be a ground component—I won't share with you all the options", implying that there was a potential for limited assault operations involving soldiers on the ground in Iran.[385] The US began an aerial campaign against Iranian vessels and drones in the Strait of Hormuz in an effort to reopen it to international shipping.[386]
Fourth week (21–27 March)
Admiral Brad Cooper said that the US military had so far struck more than 8,000 Iranian military targets, including 130 vessels.[387] On 21 March, the US conducted strikes on the Natanz Nuclear Facility using bunker buster bombs to target the site.[388] Russia condemned the strikes on Natanz as a "blatant violation of international law," while the IAEA urged military restraint "to avoid any risk of a nuclear accident".[389] In response, Iran struck the southern Israeli town of Dimona, injuring at least 78 people.[390] Iran said that it targeted the Shimon Peres Negev Nuclear Research Center.[391][392]
Citing unnamed US officials, CNN and The Wall Street Journal reported that Iran unsuccessfully attempted to strike the joint US–UK military base at Diego Garcia on the Chagos Islands in the British Indian Ocean Territory.[393] The report said one of the missiles broke apart mid-flight, while another was intercepted by a SM-3 air defence missile launched by a US warship.[394] Israel said that Iran used a two-stage intercontinental ballistic missile to target the island.[395][396] Iran denied launching missiles towards Diego Garcia, saying that it was an Israeli false flag attack.[397] In response the UK Foreign Secretary confirmed and denounced the Iranian attack on their end, and additionally expanded permission for the United States to bomb certain targets using their bases.[398][399] No evidence has been presented that the alleged Iranian missiles neared Diego Garcia or that one was intercepted.[400]
The Houthi movement in Yemen warned that it would respond to any escalation against Iran, including efforts to reopen the Strait of Hormuz. It specifically warned the two Arab countries offering to join the Strait of Hormuz campaign—Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates—that they "will be the first to lose in this battle".[401] The Houthis further threatened to join the war in the event that US allies joined the attack on Iran or if the US and Israel used the Red Sea to carry out operations.[402] Lebanon's government expelled the Iranian ambassador.[403]
Trump issued an ultimatum to Iran, threatening to strike its power plants unless it opened the Strait of Hormuz within 48 hours.[404] Iran doubled down, threatening to "completely" close the Strait of Hormuz and strike vital infrastructure across the region such as energy and desalination facilities critical for drinking water.[405] Iranian opposition figure and former crown prince Reza Pahlavi called on Trump and Netanyahu to target the military while sparing civilian infrastructure which "Iranians will need to rebuild our country."[406] Halfway through the deadline, Trump announced that he was postponing strikes against Iranian power plants for five days,[407] and said the US was negotiating with Iran to end the war.[408] Iran denied the talks ever took place or were taking place and called the president "deceitful".[409] Iran rejected the 15-point peace plan presented by the US.[410][411] Iran asserted that Lebanon must be included as part of a ceasefire deal, thereby making a ceasefire conditional on an end to the 2026 Lebanon war against Hezbollah.[412]
On 24 March, Israel or its allies shot down an Iranian missile crossing above Lebanon at high altitude, according to the Lebanese army, which also confirmed that the missile was not targeting Lebanon. This was the first time during the current conflict when a shootdown of an Iranian missile took place over Lebanese territory.[413][414]
A US strike on the Habbaniya military base—which hosts units from the Popular Mobilization Forces—in Al Anbar Governorate killed seven members of the Iraqi Armed Forces and injured 13 others. In response, Iraqi prime minister Mohammed Shia' al-Sudani summoned the US embassy's chargé d'affaires in Baghdad.[415] Iranian state media threatened that Iran could seize Bahraini and Emirati territory if the US "makes any mistakes", while signaling its readiness to open a new front in Yemen by closing the Bab al-Mandab Strait together with the Houthis.[416][417] Israel said it killed Iran's top naval commander, Alireza Tangsiri, purportedly as part of an effort to reopen the Strait of Hormuz, which Katz said Tangsiri was "directly responsible" for the closure of.[418][419][420]
On 27 March, a day after Trump and Hegseth announced the "neutralization" of Iran's military, an Iranian missile and drone strike on Prince Sultan Air Base damaged several US refueling aircraft and injured at least 15 US soldiers. An E-3 Sentry was also damaged by the strike.[421][422][423] Military analyst Cedric Leighton described the attack as a "a serious blow to [US] surveillance capabilities".[424] The same day, Iran blocked two Chinese ships from entering the strait and sought to formalize fees for ships passing through it.[425][426] Despite pushes for talks, Israeli defense minister Israel Katz publicly vowed to "intensify and expand" Israeli attacks in Iran.[427] The same day, the Shahid Khondab Heavy Water Complex in Arak—which has in the past been used to test uranium enrichment—and the Ardakan yellowcake production plant in Yazd Province were confirmed to have been damaged in Israeli airstrikes.[428][429]
Fifth week (28 March – 3 April)
The Houthis joined the war on 28 March launching a ballistic missile towards Israel.[430] The Houthis said that they had launched ballistic missiles targeting "sensitive" military sites in Israel, and vowed to continue the attacks "until the aggression on all resistance fronts stops". The missile was intercepted and no casualties were reported.[431] The Houthis subsequently launched a second missile at Eilat.[432] In response, the internationally recognized Yemeni government condemned Iran's "frequent attempts to drag Yemen" into conflict "through its terrorist militias".[433] On the same day, 2,500 US marines from the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit arrived in the Middle East, expected to be part of US efforts to open the Strait of Hormuz.[434]
US Central Command (CENTCOM) stated that it had struck over 11,000 targets in Iran since the beginning of the war. On 28 March, joint US–Israeli airstrikes severely damaged several residential and civilian facilities, including the Iran University of Science and Technology.[435] In response, Iran threatened to attack Israeli and American colleges across the Middle East.[436] Airstrikes also struck a 10,000-cubic-metre (350,000 cu ft) water reservoir in Haftkel, in Khuzestan province.[437]
An Iranian missile struck a chemical plant in the Ne'ot Hovav industrial zone, injuring one person and causing fears of a hazardous leak.[438] A convoy of the Iraqi Popular Mobilization Forces was seen entering Khorramshahr in southwestern Iran.[439] Eleven-year-old child soldier Alireza Jafari was killed in an Israeli drone strike "while serving" at a checkpoint on a Tehran highway;[440][441] Amnesty International called the organized Iranian recruitment of children as young as Jafari a war crime.[442]
On 29 March, Trump stated that he would prefer to "take the oil in Iran". He proposed taking Iran's oil export center, Kharg Island, claiming that the United States could capture the territory "very easily", and implying that the US could occupy it for some time.[443]
On 30 March, Trump said that if a deal were not reached soon and the Strait of Hormuz reopened, the US would strike all of Iran's power plants, oil wells, Kharg Island, and possibly all its desalinization plants,[444] although the feasibility and strategic value of some of Trump's threats were contested.[445] On the same day Turkey and NATO intercepted the fourth missile directed towards Turkish territory. Iran denied firing a missile at Turkey, claiming that it was a false flag attack.[446][447] The US began flying B-52 bombers over Iranian territory for the first time, indicating its confidence of air supremacy over Iran.[448] The US used bombers to target an ammunition depot and air base in Isfahan, causing large explosions.[449] U.S-allied Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Kuwait, and Bahrain reportedly pushed Trump to continue the war until there are significant changes in Iran's leadership.[450] American journalist Shelly Kittleson was kidnapped in Baghdad by Kata'ib Hezbollah—the strongest faction within the PMF—who demanded that the Iraqi government release several detained members of the group.[451]
On 1 April, Mehr News Agency, a semi-official Iranian government news outlet, reported that policy expert and former foreign minister Kamal Kharazi was seriously injured and his wife was killed in an airstrike which hit his home.[452] Iranian officials described the attack as an attempt to derail diplomacy, noting that Kharazi was overseeing a possible meeting between Iranian officials and US vice president JD Vance.[453] Airstrikes on the strategically important Hengam Island in the Strait of Hormuz caused seven injuries.[454] Netanyahu asserted that the US–Israeli strikes have eliminated Iran's ability to produce nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles, thereby removing "two existential threats" to Israel.[455]
Late in the day on 1 April, Trump made a speech addressing the nation, in which he said that the strikes have "dramatically curtailed" Iranian missile and drone systems, and added that the attacks on Iran will escalate over the next two to three weeks to "bring them back to the Stone Ages, where they belong".[456]
On 2 April, two US strikes on the B1 bridge between Tehran and Karaj, which was described as the highest bridge in the Middle East, reportedly killed eight people and wounded 95 others, causing it to collapse.[457] Experts assessed the attack as a possible war crime; it was celebrated by Trump.[458] At the time of the attack, many Iranian families had been gathered in the parks below the bridge to celebrate Sizdah Be-dar.[459]
Iran revealed major damage to the century-old medical center Pasteur Institute of Iran. US defense secretary Hegseth boasted of "death and destruction from the sky all day long".[458] The IDF also announced that one of its strikes in the Kermanshah area of Iran killed Iranian ballistics missile chief Makram Atimi and several battalion commanders from Atimi's central Iranian ballistic missile unit.[460][461] An Iranian ballistic missile strike damaged an Israeli drone factory in Petah Tikva.[462][463][464] On the same day, Iran's army chief, Amir Hatami, stated that if US forces invade the country, "not a single person" among the invaders will survive.[465]
On 3 April, Iranian forces shot down a US Air Force F-15E Strike Eagle fighter jet over the country, with the wreckage falling in the Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad province of Iran,[466] prompting a search and rescue mission by US helicopters.[467] The pilot was rescued that same day, but the WSO remained missing and was rescued alive 48 hours later.[468]
A US A-10 "Warthog" aircraft was downed and its single crew member ejected near the Strait of Hormuz and was rescued.[469] Iran released a video showing shooting down the aircraft using surface-to-air missile.[470]
On the same day, Tehran's Shahid Beheshti University was hit by airstrikes, making the total number of universities hit to more than 30, according to the Iranian Minister of Science.[471]
Sixth week (4–7 April)
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On 4 April, explosions were reported at an auxiliary building of the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant as well as the Mahshahr Special Petrochemical Zone in Mahshahr, Iran.[472] The airstrikes in Mahshahr killed at least five and injured 170 others.[473] An Iranian missile strike hit in the vicinity of the IDF's HaKirya headquarters in Tel Aviv.[474]
On 5 April, after heavy fighting, the second stranded crew member from the F-15E downed on 3 April was recovered by US forces in a rescue operation, which resulted in damage to helicopters, the shooting down of an A-10 Thunderbolt II,[475] and the destruction of two C-130 Hercules, three IRGC members killed, and several American service members injured.[468]
On 6 April, the IRGC announced that the head of the IRGC's intelligence organisation, Major General Majid Khademi, had been killed in a joint US-Israeli airstrike. Their statement claimed that Khademi had "played a major role in Iran's intelligence and security apparatus over nearly five decades".[476] Israel said that Yazdan Mir, a high-ranking commander of the IRGC Quds Force, had also been killed in the attacks.[477]
On the same day, before Trump's deadline for targeting Iranian infrastructure,[478] Israel carried out strikes on the South Pars Petrochemical facility in Asaluyeh, Iran.[479] The IAF said that "85% of Iran's petrochemical exports" had been taken offline by now.[480]
At least 34 people, including six children, were killed in US-Israeli airstrikes across Iran, including against Sharif University of Technology and residential areas. Iranian vice president and reformist politician Mohammad Reza Aref, who is also an alumnus of the university, described the alleged use of a bunker-buster bomb as a "symbol of Trump's madness and ignorance".[481]
On 7 April, The Rafi'-Nia synagogue in central Tehran was destroyed in an airstrike.[482] Israel said that the building was destroyed due to collateral damage and that it was never meant to be the direct target of the airstrike.[483] The same day, US forces began strikes on Kharg Island.[484] In response, Iran said its restraint in targeting oil infrastructure in the region would no longer apply.[485] Trump posted to Truth Social that "a whole civilization will die tonight, never to be brought back again",[486] causing international concern that Trump would use nuclear weapons. The Secretary General of Amnesty International said that Trump's statement "may constitute a threat to commit genocide".[487] Multiple right-wing commentators and many Democrats condemned the post, and some called for him to be removed through the 25th Amendment.[488][489] The White House denied considering using nuclear weapons.[490] The White House later said that "only the president knows" what he would do on Iran.[491]
A leaked US intelligence report concluded that Iran retained 70% of missiles and launchers at this point, despite Trump claims regarding "destruction" of Iran's military.[492]
Ceasefire, dual blockade and Islamabad Memorandum (8 April – 19 June)
On 7 April Trump announced that the US and Iran had reached an agreement based on the 10-point proposal mediated by Pakistani prime minister Shehbaz Sharif and Field Marshal Asim Munir.[493] The US, Israel, and Iran agreed to a two-week ceasefire, under which Iran would re-open the Strait of Hormuz.[494]
After the announcement, Iran's Lavan Island oil refinery and Sirri Island crude export facilities were struck; no party claimed responsibility.[495] In response, Iran continued missile and drone strikes on Gulf Arab states.[496] The refinery attack was later revealed to have been done secretly by the UAE.[4][497][498]
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Israel and the US asserted that the ceasefire did not include Lebanon,[499][500] contradicting the Pakistani mediators and Iran.[501] Hezbollah said it had halted attacks on Israel and on Israeli soldiers in Lebanon.[502] Despite the ceasefire, Israel launched "Operation Eternal Darkness", which included targeting all Hezbollah's command and control centers in southern Lebanon, Beirut and the Beqaa Valley.[503] These were the largest attacks since the start of the war,[504] killing at least 357 people and injuring more than 1,200.[505][506] In Beirut alone, 92 people were killed and at least 740 injured.[507] In response, Iran threatened to attack Israel "if the aggressions against dear Lebanon are not brought to an immediate end".[508] Iran paused Hormuz traffic over Israeli attacks in Lebanon.[509] Hezbollah claimed responsibility for launching rockets towards northern Israel as a response to "ceasefire violations".[510]
On 11 April, Trump said that American forces had started "clearing" the Strait of Hormuz.[511] Iran claimed that an American ship on its way to the strait turned back after being warned.[512] The Wall Street Journal reported US Navy destroyers entered the strait for the first time since the war began. The Iranian government reportedly threatened to attack the ships, accusing the US of a ceasefire violation.[513][514] US Central Command said the ships were minesweeping.[515] On the same day, the talks between the US and Iran—the highest-level discussions between the two since the 1979 Islamic Revolution—were held in Islamabad, Pakistan, lasting 21 hours. JD Vance announced no agreement was reached and Iran had refused "to accept our terms".[516] Trump stated he no longer cared about negotiations.[517]
Trump declared that the US Navy would begin its blockade of "all Ships trying to enter, or leave, the Strait of Hormuz" from 13 April. He said the US Navy would stop any ships that paid tolls to Iran.[518] However, United States Central Command clarified that the blockade would only be enforced on ships travelling to or from Iranian ports.[519] The IRGC Navy said any military vessel approaching the strait would be considered a ceasefire violation and meet a "severe response."[520] Trump threatened to strike fast-attack ships of the IRGC Navy, similar to US strikes on drug traffickers during Operation Southern Spear.[521] Iran had 13 days of oil storage capacity, forcing it to shut down its oil fields and potentially damaging them.[522] An analyst estimated loss of import and export capacity would be US$435 million per day.[522]
On 16 April, Trump announced that Israel and Lebanon agreed to a ten-day truce.[523] Iran announced that passage of commercial vessels through the strait would be allowed during the truce.[524] Despite this, Trump said that the blockade would continue,[525] so Iran announced it would reimpose restrictions on the strait.[526][527][528] The US stated that its blockade had intercepted 23 ships.[529]
Despite Iran's seizure of two cargo ships,[530] Trump claimed total control over the strait.[531] The Guardian described the situation as a "dual blockade", saying that while the US Navy could blockade Iranian ports, it had been unable to stop Iran's blockade and open the strait to allies.[530] Israel and Lebanon agreed a three-week extension of their ceasefire.[532]
On 8 June, the IDF announced that it struck military sites in Iran, with explosions reported in Tehran, Isfahan, and Tabriz.[533] This triggered an exchange between the two countries.[534] Two Iranian soldiers were killed in an Israeli attack.[535] Iran afterwards said it had ceased military actions against Israel.[536] Israel stopped strikes at Trump's request.[537]
On 9 June, The New York Times reported that American crew was rescued after a helicopter went down near the strait. CENTCOM said they were rescued by a US Navy drone boat for the first time.[538][539][540] Trump said Iranians had shot down the helicopter and pledged to respond.[541] A US official said a Shahed one-way attack drone downed the helicopter.[542] Iran said it did not deliberately target the helicopter.[543] CENTCOM later said that it launched "self-defense" strikes in retaliation.[540] One attack damaged water reservoir tanks in Sirik; Iran stated that 20,000 people had lost access to drinking water.[544][545]
On 14 June, Iran said that the draft US deal included Tehran agreeing not to produce or acquire nuclear weapons, and the US agreeing to allow Tehran to dilute its highly enriched uranium stockpile in Iran.[546] Trump and Iran announced they had reached an agreement to end the war and reopen the strait. Trump said he had authorized the lifting of the US blockade.[547] On 15 June, US vice president JD Vance announced that the memorandum was digitally signed by both countries the previous day.[548] On 17 June, Trump and Iranian president Masoud Pezeshkian signed the memorandum of understanding to end the war, with Trump signing it during dinner with French president Emmanuel Macron at the Palace of Versailles after the G7 summit.[549] On 18 June, Pakistan stated that the signing of the memorandum implies Tehran will reopen the Hormuz "instantly" and the American blockade will end "immediately."[550] CENTCOM announced that it had removed the naval blockade.[551]
On 19 June, Trump announced a renewed ceasefire between Israel and Hezbollah in the 2026 Lebanon war, facilitated by the US, Qatar, and Iran.[552][553] Hezbollah announced an attack on Israeli forces trying to capture Ali al-Taher in Nabatieh.[554] Israel continued to strike southern Lebanon numerous times.[555]
Renewed hostilities (8 July – present)
On 8 July, Trump declared the MOU was "over", adding that he lacked further desire to deal with Iran's leadership, after Iran allegedly struck more targets in the Strait of Hormuz.[556] Trump later stated that US negotiators could continue negotiations, although he expressed pessimism about the outcome.[557] Iranian state media announced that eight soldiers were killed in American attacks in Bandar Abbas and Bushehr.[558] Trump added that the war would not resume, but if it did, it would be short, that he might be assassinated by Iran, and he was the top target on Iran's hit list.[559][560] Mehr News Agency reported that the US attacks killed two Iranian fishermen.[561] CENTCOM announced that it hit roughly 90 Iranian military targets, including air defense systems, coastal surveillance assets, missile and drone storage facilities, naval capabilities, and military logistics infrastructure along the country's coastline.[562] IRNA reported that a US attack hit an airport in southeastern Iran, killing a fireman.[563] On 10 July, The Wall Street Journal reported that Israel provided intelligence with the US on a new conspiracy by the Iranian regime to assassinate Trump.[564] Trump refuted the claim, stating, "I've left instructions—if anything happens, to literally bomb them at levels that they've never seen before."[565]
The IMO's administrative council agreed that member states should reject Iranian efforts to impose sovereignty over the Hormuz and Tehran's "unilateral decision" to form a body to control traffic on the waterway.[566] The IRGC's navy said it closed the strait until further notice after firing a warning shot at a vessel trying to transit through an unapproved route.[567] On 13 July, Trump announced that the US will reinstate the "Iranian blockade in the Strait" and impose a 20% toll on cargo shipping through it.[568] The Yemeni government and Saudi Arabia struck the Sanaa International Airport controlled by the Houthis,[569][570] allegedly to prevent an Iranian plane from landing.[571] The Houthis retaliated by launching missiles and drones against Saudi Arabia’s Abha International Airport.[572][573] The Combined Maritime Forces' Joint Maritime Information Centre (JMIC), led by America, announced that the US blockade on Iran would start the following day.[574] The US announced that it hit military targets throughout Iran including Bushehr, Chabahar, Jask, Konarak, Abu Musa, and Bandar Abbas.[aj][577] Two Emirati tankers were reportedly struck by Iranian cruise missiles in the strait in Oman's territorial waters, killing one Indian crew member and injuring two critically.[578][579] On 14 July, Trump cancelled plans to impose fees in the strait.[580] The IMO said that the death toll from Hormuz ship attacks on that day increased to two.[581] On 15 July, CENTCOM commander Admiral Brad Cooper said that Iran had deliberately attacked seven commercial vessels in the last week resulting in "nearly a dozen" civilian crews being killed, wounded or going missing.[582] CENTCOM said that the US reinstated a naval blockade on Iran ports.[583] Iran said that it targeted US sites in Jordan, Kuwait and Bahrain.[584] CENTCOM stated that the US conducted more strikes on coastal defense systems and cruise missile sites on Greater Tunb Island.[585][586] Iran said that over 30 civilians were included in those killed in recent American attacks in the country's south.[587]
On 16 July, the Islamic Republic of Iran Army said that it aimed at American military targets in Jordan, Kuwait and Bahrain.[588][589][590] The IRGC stated that it aimed at an American airbase in Jordan.[591] The White House maintained that Iran is still in talks with the US and hopes to negotiate an agreement.[592] CENTCOM said it had expanded strikes into northern Iran on targets including military logistics infrastructure to "further degrade Iranian military capabilities".[593][594] Explosions were reported on Qeshm Island, in Bushehr, Ahvaz, Bandar Abbas, and on a bridge in Bandar Khamir, where a reportedly targeted truck strike killed its driver.[595] Tasnim News Agency reported that U.S. fighter jets struck Iranshahr Airport in Sistan and Baluchestan province.[596] Iran also accused the United States of striking near a children's cancer hospital in Ahvaz, forcing the evacuation of 211 pediatric cancer patients.[597] That same day, the Iranian regime's judiciary dismissed Trump's claim that an American prisoner arrested during the Biden administration in 2024 was released or exchanged.[598] On 17 July, Qatar stated that a child was wounded by shrapnel resulting from downing operations against an Iranian missile attack on the country.[599] The Iran Army said that it aimed at American force deployment and logistical support centers in Kuwait.[600] Iranian state media reported that American attacks on infrastructure in southern and western Iran killed eight Iranians, and causing injury to 20 others.[601] The IRGC claimed that it aimed at an American command center in al-Tanf despite departure of US soldiers in the military base to Jordan in early that year. This was denied by Syria.[602][603] Iran said that it targeted an American maritime surveillance radar in Oman.[604] US-led coalition forces in Iraq intercepted several drones above Erbil.[605] The British military stated that a tanker was struck by an unknown projectile near Oman.[606] Iran stated that it aimed at American fighter jets in Jordan.[607] Kuwait stated that Iran's attack caused damage to one of its electricity generation and water desalination stations.[608] Iran claimed that it hit American Al Udeid Air Base.[609] Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan stated that nine Iranian Kurdish rebels were killed in attacks on a camp in the vicinity of Sulaymaniyah, blaming it on Iranian leadership.[610][611] Two more drones aimed at Iranian Kurdish rebel camp in Iraq.[612] Kuwait army stated that several soldiers from its land forces were injured in one of those Iranian attacks.[613] Tasnim News Agency reported, citing informed source that a Thai-flagged ship was targeted in the Hormuz by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Navy, accusing it of ignoring warnings and trying to pass without approval from the navy.[614] The U.S. stated that it struck Iran's infrastructure for seventh consecutive night.[615] The U.S. stated that it struck Iran's infrastructure including subterranean arsenals for seventh consecutive night.[615][616] Iran claimed that its strikes destroyed main AI center in Bahrain and a US drone storage site.[617] Iran media reported, citing a local official that American attacks in Hormozgan province killed three people and injured eight others. The IRGC stated it had detained four tankers in the Hormuz, accusing them of breaching regulations while trying to pass through the strait.[618] Iran state television claimed that Iran military struck American bases in Kuwait and Jordan.[619]
On 18 July, power facilities and desalination water pumps in Jask, Iran were struck, cutting of water supply to 10,000 people on the coastal area, according to Iranian officials.[620][621] The IRGC stated that two oil tankers exploded in mined route in the vicinity of Hormuz. CENTCOM denied the claim.[616][622] An American official told Axios that Iran aimed at a US military base in Saudi Arabia.[623] Kuwait Ministry of Electricity and Kuwaiti fire service stated that an Iranian attack caused a fire in a power generation and water desalination plant in the country, causing injuries to several firemen.[624][625] Kuwait Petroleum Corporation stated that "repeated Iranian attacks" hit one of its oil facilities, causing significant material damage and wounding some people.[626][627] Iranian Deputy Foreign Minister Kazem Gharibabadi states that Iran suspended implementation of MoU commitments as part of the interim deal with the US, accusing the latter of breaching its own obligations.[628] Iranian government stated that at least 50 people were killed and over 500 others were injured in American attacks in Iran since its renewal.[629] CENTCOM stated that two American soldiers were killed, one went missing, four others were injured and some others were slightly wounded while defending against Iranian ballistic missile and drone attacks in Jordan the day before.[630] On the same day, CENTCOM stated that the US struck Iranian targets including Iranian troops who attacked its soldiers in retaliation to IRGC attack on its service members in Jordan.[631][632] A military official with Kurdistan Freedom Party stated that eight Iranian Kurdish rebels were injured in an Iranian attack on the group's base in the vicinity of Erbil.[633]
On 19 July, Iran stated that it targeted the US navy base in Kuwait.[634] The Iranian Army announced targeting the American depot at Camp Udairi and another at Ali Al Salem Air Base in Kuwait with kamikaze drones in response to US attacks on civilian infrastructures.[635][636][637] The IRGC claimed shooting down an espionage drone in south of Iran, an American MQ-9 drone over Ahvaz and Iran army claimed that it downed an American cruise missile in western Iran.[635][638] The IRGC stated that two ships that had ignored its warnings and operated with American support collided in the Hormuz, two others turned back.[639][640] The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran stated that Americans struck the site of Darkhovin Nuclear Power Plant.[641] A Kuwaiti minister stated that electricity, water desalination plant was struck for second time in two days.[642] Iran Health Ministry stated that at least 50 Iranians including five women and two children were killed and 517 others including 35 women and 19 children were injured in American attacks since late June that year.[643] Americans shot down Iranian missiles above Aqaba.[644] Following the Iranian assault on a military site in Jordan, the US Embassy in Jordan issued a strong warning to its citizens, advising them to stay away from Aqaba’s airport and port because of a “specific and credible threat.” Additionally, Trump has not been publicly seen for approximately 24 hours since the attack and has participated in only one phone interview regarding the incident.[645] The Pentagon reported the death of a U.S. soldier in Iraq following the neutralization of Iranian drones and the finding of several unidentified remains in Jordan.[646]
On 20 July, CENTCOM stated that American military struck Iran military targets to "continue degrading Iranian military capabilities used to attack commercial vessels and civilian mariners transiting the Strait of Hormuz."[647][648] The UK military stated that a vessel caught fire in the Hormuz in the vicinity of Omani coast.[649] Iran fired missiles from Lorestan province at "enemy targets", with the IRGC stating that it aimed at American planes in King Hussein International Airport and claiming that it struck Ali al-Salem air base.[650][651][652] The IRGC stated that two vessels had "exploded" and been immobilised after trying to transit what it called as an unsafe southern route through the Hormuz, alleging they had been encouraged by American military to use the passage.[653] The IRGC also claimed a "surprise attack on enemy special ops command center" in Syria in retaliation for killing Iranian soldiers in Iranshahr and complete destruction of a US early-warning radar system in Kuwait in its strikes.[654][655] Trump stated that the latest strikes on Iran are being conducted in honor of three American soldiers killed in recent days.[656] US Secretary of State Marco Rubio accused the Iranian regime of using Hormuz as a "leverage against the world", adding that “The United States will do and continue to do what it needs to, to protect global shipping".[657] IRNA reported that an American attack in the vicinity of Tabriz killed one person and injured several others.[658] The New York Times reported, citing US officials that the Pentagon did not disclose three Iranian attacks on US forces in Jordan last week, which injured dozens of American soldiers and damaged several helicopters prior to the 17 July attack that killed two US soldiers. According to the report, military officials stated that the injuries were not publicly publicised because Central Command is not compelled to report them and doing so could enhance Iran's targeting efforts.[659] On the same day, an Iran source told Reuters that mediators proposed a 10-day Iran-U.S. strike halt to revive the interim agreement.[660] Despite this, Iran claimed that it hit Sakhir Air Base and Khalifa Bin Salman Port, as well as the American base of Camp Arifjan.[661]
Casualties and damages
Iranian losses
The US and Israel killed many Iranian commanders and leaders on the war's first day by causing Iran to believe that strikes were not imminent. Thus, groups of senior Iranian officials continued gathering in person. These gatherings were targeted in initial strikes. One part of the deception was information about a US F-22 deployment leaked to hide that preparations were more advanced at other bases.[662][663] Calls between Trump and Netanyahu before the war were not publicised to diminish the possibility of an Iranian first strike.[663]
IDF spokesperson Brigadier General Effie Defrin stated that months of joint US and Israeli "strategic and operational deception" of satellite imagery led up to the war. This encompassed planes and other facilities. The night of the initial strike he and IDF Chief of Staff Lieutenant General Eyal Zamir took their official cars home from IDF Headquarters.[662] They came back without them so that satellite imagery would show that their base did not appear full nor warplanes appear armed and ready.[664][665] Three separate gatherings of Iranian officials were hit within half a minute of each other in the opening strike.[663]
Assassination of Ali Khamenei
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On 28 February 2026, Ali Khamenei, the supreme leader of Iran, was assassinated in an Israeli air attack.[666][663] On 1 March, Iranian state media announced Khamenei's death.[667] The IRGC-controlled Fars News Agency announced that Khamenei's daughter, son-in-law, grandchild, and daughter-in-law Zahra Haddad-Adel had also been killed.[668][669][670] The Iranian government declared 40 days of mourning.[671]
Military and officials
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The initial dead included Iranian defense minister Aziz Nasirzadeh, and four top Ministry of Intelligence officials.[672]
Additional senior officials included Salah Asadi, head of intelligence for Iran's emergency command, Mohammad Shirazi, head of Khamenei's military office, head of the Organization of Defensive Innovation and Research (SPND) Hossein Jabal Amelian, former SPND head Reza Mozaffari Nia,[154] and chief of staff Abdolrahim Mousavi, among 40 official as reported by intelligence and military sources.[673]
On 13 March, IDF estimated that between 3,000 and 4,000 Iranian soldiers and commanders had been killed.[674]
On 17 March, Israel assassinated Ali Larijani, secretary of Iran's SNSC.[370] IRGC commander Mohammad Pakpour and Defence Council secretary Ali Shamkhani were reported dead in late March.[675]
On 18 March, the Hengaw Organization for Human Rights estimated that 5,300+ members of the Iranian military had been killed.[676]
On 31 March, Iran International reported that at least 4,700 security forces had been killed.[677]
On 6 April, the head of IRGC intelligence, Major General Majid Khademi, was assassinated in a joint US-Israeli airstrike.[476]
As of 7 April, Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRANA), a US-based non-governmental organization, reported 3,636 documented war deaths, including 1,701 civilians, 1,221 military personnel, and 714 unclassified. According to HRANA, "[i]t is believed that military casualties are significantly higher than the figures reported in [its] reports" as confirmations depend largely on government data. Its count largely reflects reports of military personnel present in urban areas.[678]
Civilians
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On the first day of the war, Iran reported that the Shajareh Tayyebeh girls' elementary school in Minab had been hit by an American attack.[679] The school was located near[ak] the Sayyid al-Shuhada military complex,[683] of which it had once been a part.[682][684] While the number killed was not independently confirmed,[685] Iranian state media reported that more than 175 people, mostly children, were killed while 95 were wounded.[686] Video showed a Tomahawk missile hitting a building adjacent to the school;[687] preliminary findings from an American military investigation indicated that the strike resulted from outdated targeting data.[688]
At least 20 civilians, mostly families who gathered after breaking their fast at Ramadan,[689] were killed in Tehran's Niloofar Square on 1 or 2 March, according to Iranian-state media.[690] On 3 March, the Iranian Red Crescent Society said that over 600 civilians had been killed[691] while HRANA reported 1,097 civilian deaths.[692] On 7 March, the Red Crescent reported that over 6,668 civilian "units" had been targeted by US-Israeli strikes, including 5,535 residential units, 1,041 commercial units, 14 medical centers, 65 schools, and 13 centers affiliated with the Red Crescent.[693] The Middle East Eye, an anti-Israel news outlet, reported that the US used double tap airstrikes,[694][695] although the US denies this. As of 23 March, HRANA estimated that at least 15% of the casualties were under age 18.[696]
An Israeli airstrike on 9 March in Resalat neighbourhood of Tehran destroyed a Basij-affiliated building as well as three residential buildings, killing 40 to 50. According to a BBC analysis, Israel used Mark 82 bombs in the attack.[689]
As of 27 March, Iran has reported damage to at least 120 historical sites.[697]
The deadly attack on residential buildings and a sports hall in the town of Lamerd killed 21 including 4 children and injured 100.[698]
Institutions
The initial attack targeted Leadership House. On 2 March, video footage released by Iran International showed the destroyed IRGC Malek-Ashtar building in Tehran following a joint US-Israel missile strike.[699] On 3 March, the complex of Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB), the state broadcaster's headquarters, was hit in an Israeli air operation.[700][701]
Iranian state-linked media indicated that Iran's parliament building was targeted.[702] On 3 March, Israeli forces bombed the Assembly of Experts office building in Qom.[703][704]
Infrastructure
By 5 March, the World Health Organization had identified 13 Iranian health sites hit, as well as one in Lebanon.[705] The Iranian Foreign Minister said that the US had struck a desalination plant on Qeshm Island, disrupting water supply to 30 villages, but both the US and Israel denied an attack.[706][296] The Russian consulate in Isfahan was damaged.[707] After US strikes on 9 June, Iran said that damage to water storage units in Hormozgan province had left 20,000 people without water.[544]
On 18 July, Iranian media reported that U.S. strikes hit power facilities and desalination pumps at the Bonji desalination plant in Jask, Hormozgan Province. Reuters reported that several missiles struck the facilities, citing a local official, and said the attack disrupted water supplies to 20 villages, affecting around 10,000 people.[616][708]
American losses
Analysis of satellite images by The Washington Post revealed damage to at least 228 structures or pieces of equipment at US bases across the Persian Gulf, far more than the Trump administration has admitted to.[709]
On 1 March, six US soldiers were killed amid more than 30 injured in an Iranian drone attack near Camp Arifjan in Port Shuaiba, Kuwait. Those killed were soldiers of the United States Army Reserve assigned to the 103rd Expeditionary Sustainment Command, headquartered in Des Moines, Iowa.[710] On 8 March, CENTCOM reported that a National Guard soldier died during a medical emergency.[711] Sgt. Benjamin N. Pennington, a soldier of the 1st Space Brigade wounded in an attack against Prince Sultan Air Base in Saudi Arabia on 1 March, died from his injuries on 9 March.[712]
Six American airmen were killed on 12 March when their KC-135 aerial refueling aircraft crashed in western Iraq. CENTCOM said that the crash was not the result of hostile action, but had resulted during an incident involving another US aircraft. By 13 March, the US military publicly announced that about 140 American servicemen had been injured.[713] A 27 March attack on Prince Sultan Air Base damaged "multiple" refueling aircraft and destroyed a Boeing E-3 Sentry, as well as wounding at least 15 US soldiers.[714][715][423]
The USS Gerald R. Ford, the largest aircraft carrier in theatre, was damaged by a fire that broke out 12 March. The US Navy said the fire had injured multiple sailors,[al] started in a laundry area and was not combat-related.[720] The carrier had been dealing with other mechanical issues, including a malfunctioning sewage treatment system, since before it arrived in the Middle East.[721] According to multiple reports on 17–18 March, Gerald R. Ford paused launching airstrikes and sailed toward the Crete Naval Base for repairs.[717]
Many US military bases near Iran were rendered "all but uninhabitable" due to Iranian strikes. Within the first two weeks, Iran's attacks had caused $800 million in damage. Affected bases include Al-Sader and Al-Ruwais in the UAE, the naval base in Bahrain, Ali Al-Salem in Kuwait, Al-Udeid in Qatar, and Prince Sultan in Saudi Arabia. According to unnamed officials, the damage degraded the US's military ability in the war. Many US servicemembers relocated to "hotels and office spaces", which raised concerns of the US using civilians as human shields. An attack on a hotel in Bahrain injured two Pentagon employees.[722]
Based on numbers given by members of the United States Congress, by May 2026 the United States military had lost 39 aircraft in "Operation Epic Fury".[723]
Israeli losses
Magen David Adom reported that Iran's initial attacks had left 89 injured, with three directly wounded and the rest indirectly, most of them civilians.[724][725] On 28 February, a direct hit in Tel Aviv killed a woman and injured 22 others, one seriously.[726] On 1 March, a strike hit a synagogue and residential buildings in Beit Shemesh, killing nine civilians in a shelter and injuring 49 others.[727] On 9 March, two workers were killed in Yehud, outside of Tel Aviv, after they were struck by submunitions from an Iranian missile equipped with a cluster bomb warhead.[728][729]
On 17 March, a cluster munition from an Iranian warhead hit an apartment building in Ramat Gan and killed two residents. A statement from the IRGC called the missile barrage "revenge for the blood of martyr Dr. Ali Larijani and his companions", who had been killed the day before in a targeted attack.[730] According to CNN, the use of cluster munitions violates international law. N.R. Jenzen-Jones of Armament Research Services stated that this type of warhead is being used "primarily to sow terror amongst a civilian population".[731]
The executive director of the Arms Control Association called the use of cluster munitions against residential sections of Israel deliberate, saying "Iran appears to be launching them into relatively populated areas, probably with the goal of producing potential civilian harm."[732] Neither Iran nor Israel is party to the Convention on Cluster Munitions,[733] and both are among 17 countries that either produce cluster munitions, or reserve the right to do so.[734]
On 4 April, an Iranian missile strike hit in the vicinity of the IDF's Kirya headquarters in Tel Aviv.[474]
Lebanese losses
Since 2 March 2026, there has been an ongoing war in Lebanon between Israel and the militant group Hezbollah, with Israel invading parts of Lebanon. It is a resumption of major fighting in the Hezbollah–Israel conflict, and part of the wider conflict in the Middle East. The war has precipitated a humanitarian crisis, resulted in the deaths of more than 4,000 people from Israeli strikes in Lebanon, and seen the forced displacement of over 1 million.
Iraq
In Iraq, two members of the Iran-backed Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) were killed and three injured in a US-Israeli attack on 28 February.[735] A later report estimated three dead.[736] On 1 and 2 March, the United States and Israel conducted several attacks on Iranian-backed Iraqi militias to degrade their military capabilities.[737]
Iranian attacks on US-allied Arab countries
In addition to Israel, Iran launched strikes against multiple US-allied Arab countries. Iranian strikes against Bahrain killed three.[739] Strikes against Kuwait killed four soldiers and four civilians.[740] Strikes against Oman killed nine.[741][742][743] Strikes against Saudi Arabia killed two.[744] Strikes against the United Arab Emirates killed two soldiers and six civilians.[745] Installations in the UAE were disproportionately often targeted by Iranian missile and drone strikes during the conflict, partially because the UAE has the closest ties to Israel of all Gulf states and the UAE launched secret attacks on targets in Iran in addition to the Israeli-American campaign itself.[746]
Iran also struck Qatar,[747] Azerbaijan,[272] and the Akrotiri and Dhekelia British Overseas Territory on Cyprus.[748]
The Iranian attacks affected military infrastructure from NATO countries in the region, "including an Italian installation in Iraq and Kuwait, and a French naval facility in the United Arab Emirates".[749]
Casualties by citizenship
Attacks by missiles and drones/UAVs
| Country / Territory | Missiles | Drones/UAVs | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Total | 1,770+ | 3,955+ | |
| United Arab Emirates | 563 | 2,256 | [750] |
| Saudi Arabia | 3+ | 83 | [751] |
| Qatar | 101 | 63 | [751] |
| Bahrain | 191 | 515 | [752] |
| Oman | 0 | 14 | [753] |
| Kuwait | 178 | 154 | [754] |
| Jordan | 60 | 59 | [325] |
| Iraq | 20 | 40 | [325] |
| Azerbaijan | 0 | 3 | [325] |
| Turkey | 4 | 0 | [325] |
| Akrotiri and Dhekelia | 0 | 3 | [325] |
| Israel | 650 | 765 | [755] |
Direct impacts
Iran
Leadership
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The death of Ali Khamenei triggered an election for a new supreme leader. Under the terms of Iran's constitution, the Interim Leadership Council was established on 1 March to exercise the functions of Iran's head of state until a new supreme leader is elected.[185]
Mojtaba Khamenei was elected on 8 March 2026 to replace his father as supreme leader,[756] and the IRGC, as well as Iran's top leaders, including Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, Ali Larijani, and Masoud Pezeshkian,[757] pledged their allegiance to him.[758]
In late March, the NYT described Iran's leadership as paralyzed with severely disrupted decision-making process. It also reported that the damage to communications infrastructure caused paranoia and internal power struggles.[759]
As of 21 May, Khamenei remains in hiding and the de facto ruler is uncertain. The IRGC is currently under command of the hardliner general Ahmad Vahidi,[760] who is cited as the formulator of Iran's military and negotiation stance.[761][762][763][764][765]
Civilian life
According to UN Human Rights Chief Volker Türk, the "reckless" war is disproportionately impacting civilians in the Middle East and beyond.[766]
138,000 civilian sites in Iran were damaged during the conflict, with estimated time of reconstruction being 2-5 years.[767]
As the US and Israel executed joint strikes targeting Iranian military and institutional targets, Iran's capital reportedly became a ghost town, as civilians feared going outside or to their daily jobs.[768] Reports have emerged that prisoners in Evin Prison have been receiving limited bread and water since the onset of the war.[769] After the strikes, schools were ordered closed while banks and government offices remained in operation at reduced capacity. Local media reported that subway and bus services would remain operational.[770]
During the "near total" internet blackout in Iran, NetBlocks reported that internet connectivity dropped to 4% of ordinary levels.[685][771][772] As the internet blackout exceeded 240 hours, making it the second longest ever, the government started handing out "white sim cards", which bypass filters, to government supporters, in order to allow them to promote its messaging.[773][162] As news of Khamenei's death broke, security forces were deployed to prevent an uprising, with footage showing them opening fire on celebrants in the streets[774][775][776] and shooting at people chanting behind the windows of their homes.[777]
During the first two weeks of March 2026, over 70,000 Afghan refugees returned to Afghanistan, frequently under forced circumstances, exacerbating the country's severe humanitarian crisis.[778] Arafat Jamal, the UNHCR Representative in Afghanistan, noted that they faced limited options amid the military confrontations between Afghanistan and Pakistan.[779]
According to The Guardian, the war has overshadowed the executions of political prisoners in Iran, including those involved in the mass protests of January 2026, allowing Iran to continue carrying out death sentences and other severe punishments with little international scrutiny.[780] According to several Iran-focused human rights groups, the rate of sentencing and executions by hanging surged amidst the war. The groups state that in most of these cases, executed prisoners did not receive due process.[781]
Military
On 26 March, it was reported that children as young as 12 years of age may join Iran's war support, leading to concerns of the use of child soldiers.[782][783][784] Days later, rights groups stated an 11-year-old was killed while on duty at a Tehran checkpoint.[785]
On 29 March, footage showed Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces deployed in Iran.[786][787][439]
A leaked US intelligence report concluded in May that Iran retained 70% of missile and launchers relative to pre-war status.[788]
Kurdish–Iranian crisis
According to The Wall Street Journal, Trump had been open to supporting armed militias, particularly Kurds in Iran that have been in armed conflict with Tehran for decades[247] and have historically been a regional ally of the United States.[789] However, Trump later said he had ruled out sending the Kurds to Iran.[790]
Cultural heritage sites
Multiple historic and cultural sites, including UNESCO World Heritage Sites, were damaged. The most affected was Chehel Sotoun and its rich ayeneh-kari.[791] On 2 March, a strike on Arg Square damaged nearby Golestan Palace, prompting UNESCO to issue a statement of concern.[792][793] On 5 March, the Azadi Sport Complex was bombed.[794] An 8 March strike on Falak-ol-Aflak, which was marked with a blue shield emblem, damaged several sections of the site.[795] Strikes on Isfahan on 9 March damaged Naqsh-e Jahan Square, Chehel Sotoun, Ali Qapu, the Shah Mosque, Jameh Mosque, and Teymouri Hall.[796][795]
On 11 March, UNESCO urged protection for Iran's heritage sites and World Heritage Sites that have been damaged or are under high risk due to the war, alongside other historic sites in Israel, Lebanon, and the rest of West Asia.[797] On 17 March, blast waves and shrapnel damaged multiple palaces at Sa'dabad Complex in northern Tehran.[798] Russia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs reported that strikes in Tehran on 1 April damaged the St. Nicholas Orthodox Church and its auxiliary buildings.[799][800] On 7 April, the Rafi'-Nia synagogue was fully destroyed by the IAF.[483]
Israel
Israel declared a nationwide state of emergency, saying that the strikes on Iran were the largest that it had ever launched.[165][801] Israeli schools and workspaces were closed and public gatherings were canceled.[802]
In the 40 days from the start of the war through the 8 April ceasefire, there were a total of 650 missile attacks from Iran to Israel, the majority of which carried cluster munitions. About 16 of the missiles that made it past Israeli missile defenses carried conventional warheads, while 50 had cluster munitions. The attacks killed a total of 24 people, all of them civilians, and resulted in more than 7,000 injuries. Of the 24 civilians killed, 14 were struck by conventional explosive warheads and 10 by cluster submunitions. Two of the deaths were inside a sheltered space, with the other fatalities being people in unprotected areas.[803]
Palestine
The Israeli Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories closed multiple aid crossings in the Gaza Strip, specifically interrupting free circulation on the Egypt–Gaza border.[804] Israeli forces suspended United Nations humanitarian movements and postponed planned rotations of international humanitarian staff, including medical evacuations and the return of people into Gaza, which the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs condemned.[805]
Israeli settler violence against Palestinians in occupied West Bank has increased; settlers have taken advantage of curbs on movement imposed during the renewed Israeli state of emergency. The renewed blocking of West Bank roads in the context of the 2026 Lebanon war has delayed medics from assisting injured Palestinians.[806] The EU stated on 10 March that the Israeli actions were unacceptable and urged the Israeli authorities to make immediate efforts to prevent the violence against Palestinian civilians under international law, warning that "impunity for such acts risks provoking further violence".[807]
Lebanese displacements
Lebanon stated in March that over one million people,[808] 1/6th of the population, had been displaced.[809]
Gulf Arab states
The Arab states of the Persian Gulf started a campaign of prosecution against civilians and foreign citizens that shared or reposted rumours from unverified sources about the Iranian attacks, with the stated main goal to curb misinformation that could harm public order.[810] Bahrain's Cyber Crime Directorate also started a campaign of arresting civilians in the country, which has a large Shiite minority, who allegedly expressed "their support for the Iranian shelling targeting the Kingdom of Bahrain", describing such activities as treason and as promotion of hostile acts against the state.[811] Trump said "Even if we knew Gulf countries would be hit, big deal we did what we have to do".[812]
Saudi Arabia invoked its Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement with Pakistan. Pakistan deployed some 8,000 troops, a squadron of 16 aircraft, and two squadrons of drones. There was a pledge to send more if required.[813]
On 28 May, the US president Donald Trump threatened to "blow up" Oman if it failed to "behave" in a casual aside during a cabinet meeting after reports of talks between Iran and Oman about jointly charging a toll for ships passing through the Strait of Hormuz.[814]
Economic impacts
The war had global economic consequences: oil and gas prices surged, aviation and tourism were disrupted, and financial markets shuddered.[815][816] International Energy Agency (IEA) head Fatih Birol described the situation as the "greatest global energy security challenge in history".[817]
Energy
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Oil and natural gas prices rose in direct response to Iranian threats to attack tankers and other ships and to Iranian strikes on oil facilities in Gulf producing countries.[822] 20% of global oil and gas production normally transit the Strait of Hormuz.[823] As the war continued, oil and gas prices ebbed and flowed as markets attempted to assess the likelihood of an end to the conflict. Prices ranged from below $70 before the war[824] to as high as $139 on 7 March.[825] Gas prices also rose.[208] Following the start of the war, multiple oil producers such as Shell, TotalEnergies, Britain's BP and others announced increased profits in their first quarter.[826]
Toward the end of March significant shortages of domestic petroleum products emerged in southeast Asia as reserves ran out.[827]
_transits_the_Suez_Canal_during_Operation_Epic_Fury_(9552415).jpg){kind=spacer}
Stock markets initially fell, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average falling over 400 points (one percent) on 2 March alone,[828] although by mid-April had recovered and reached record highs.[829]
The UN World Food Programme and various economic analysts warned that the war is driving significant, long-term increases in global food prices.[830][831]
An analysis performed by The New York Times, comparing the quantities and value of oil and other fuels shipped between the start of the war and 8 May 2026, and those from the same period a year earlier showed that the biggest beneficiaries of the market changes were the United States (which saw an increase in exports and a revenue increase of about $50 billion) and Russia (which had steady exports and an increase of more than $15 billion in revenue), while other major non-Persian Gulf exporters also benefitted to lesser degrees. All Persian Gulf nations showed declines in exports, though those that were able to avoid shipping bottlenecks through the Strait of Hormuz (Saudi Arabia through pipelines to the Red Sea, and Oman via geography) saw increases in revenue, while those that could not avoid the strait (Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates) saw declines in revenue. Iran, which had access to the strait, had an increase in revenues.[832]
Commodities
Disruption in the supply of essential fertilizers due to the closure of the Strait threatened food production in many countries.[833] The Fertilizer Institute stated that nearly 50% of global urea and sulfur exports annually transited through the Strait of Hormuz, made worse by the natural gas shortage, which is a key feedstock for nitrogen fertilizers.[823]
Air travel
Iran's airspace emptied of civilian aircraft during the conflict,[834] as Bahrain, Iraq, Israel, Kuwait, Qatar, Syria and the UAE closed their respective airspaces.[835][836][837] Some carriers suspended service to the Middle East.[838]
The disruption in global oil supply, caused by the closure of the Strait of Hormuz during the conflict, led to higher jet fuel prices, which increased operating costs for airlines and pushed up airfares on both domestic and international routes. Airlines responded by raising ticket prices and adjusting some flight schedules to cope with higher fuel costs. This impact was also visible in Europe, where continued disruptions in energy supply routes contributed to higher fuel prices and additional pressure on airlines. As a result, some carriers reduced capacity or cut flights, while others passed increased costs directly on to passengers.[839][840][841][842]
Spirit Airlines, an American low-cost airline, ceased operations on 2 May 2026, after increased fuel costs from the war exacerbated its existing financial difficulties.[843]
Strait of Hormuz
Shipping traffic through the Strait of Hormuz, a major maritime choke point for world energy trade, has been largely blocked by Iran since 28 February 2026, when the United States and Israel launched an air war against Iran. In retaliation, the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) issued warnings forbidding passage through the strait, boarded and attacked merchant ships, and laid sea mines in the strait. From 13 April to 29 May 2026, the US simultaneously blockaded Iranian ports. Until the war's start, about 25% of the world's seaborne oil trade and 20% of the world's liquefied natural gas (LNG) passed through the strait.
Soon after the start of the conflict, tanker traffic dropped to almost nothing. On 27 March, the IRGC announced that the strait was closed to any vessel going "to and from" the ports of the US, Israel, and their allies.[844] The International Maritime Organization reported on 21 April that about 20,000 mariners and 2,000 ships were stranded in the Persian Gulf due to the closure.[845][846] Amid fears of prolonged supply shortages, oil prices rose faster than during any other conflict in recent history;[847] Brent crude oil prices surpassed US$100 per barrel on 8 March for the first time in four years, rising to US$126 per barrel at their peak.[848][849][850][851] The largest-ever monthly increase in oil prices occurred in March 2026.[852] The closure of the strait became the largest disruption to world energy supply since the 1970s energy crisis[853] as well as the largest in the history of the world oil market.[854] Other commodity markets to suffer supply disruption and price increases due to the crisis include aluminum,[855] fertilizer,[856] and helium.[857][858]
In late March and early April, US president Donald Trump repeatedly threatened to destroy Iran's infrastructure if it did not reopen the strait.[859] On 8 April a temporary ceasefire between Iran and the US was agreed and was to involve the reopening of the strait. However, following the failure of the Islamabad Talks, the US Navy itself began to blockade Iranian ports from 13 April.[860][861] The situation was described by The Guardian as a "dual blockade", with the US Navy blockading Iran and Iran blockading the Gulf.[862] On 17 April, Iran announced that due to an Israel–Lebanon ceasefire agreement, it would allow commercial shipping, but the US continued its blockade of Iran,[863] and Iran reimposed restrictions.[864][865][866] On 4 May, Trump launched Operation Project Freedom, a US Navy mission to escort merchant ships out of the Gulf.[867][868][869][870] The Iranian military warned that this would be a ceasefire violation,[871] and on 6 May, Trump paused Project Freedom because of "great progress" toward a possible agreement.[872]
On 17 June, Trump and Iranian president Masoud Pezeshkian signed a memorandum of understanding to end the war and the blockades of the strait.[873][874] On 19 June, Trump announced a renewed ceasefire between Israel and Hezbollah, facilitated by the US, Qatar, and Iran.[875][876] However, Israel continued strikes in southern Lebanon,[877] and the following day, Iran said that it closed the strait again, citing the Israeli actions as a violation of the agreement, a claim denied by the US military.[878][879] On 27 June, the Joint Maritime Information Center (JMIC) overseen by the US Navy announced a widened route through the Strait of Hormuz near Oman, allowing increased naval traffic in both directions and indicating a challenge to Iran's control over the waterway.[880] On 8 July, the interim truce agreement between the US and Iran broke down after Iran struck multiple commercial ships in the Strait of Hormuz.[881]
Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb
Houthi-controlled Yemen threatened shipping in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea. Its threats had been suspended since 10 October 2025.[882] March threats by Houthi leader Abdul-Malik al-Houthi had not stopped Red Sea traffic as of mid-April, although traffic remained under historic levels after crashing in 2024 as a result of Houthi attacks.[883] On 15 March, the Associated Press reported that the weapons stockpile of the Houthis was running low from repeated attacks on Israel, while Iran had not been able to resupply them, because of the war.[884][885]
Internet infrastructure
Three Amazon Web Services data centers in the United Arab Emirates were struck and damaged as a result of drone strikes, leading to outages of web infrastructure within the Middle East,[886] causing "sparks and fire" as well as "major structural damage" for 2 of the centers, with internal water levels reaching up to 4 cm, worsened by the failure of cooling and air systems. Fundamental web infrastructure including S3 storage, EC2 compute and DynamoDB databases suffered complete outages in early March.[887] Iran shut down Internet access for its people throughout the war.[888]
Military costs
According to a new report by the Center for International Policy, the US spent nearly $72 billion on the war ($1.2 billion per day on average). The figure is nearly three times the amount of the Pentagon's official estimate.[889] US military costs were estimated at $25–35 billion as of early April.[890] Israeli costs were estimated at $11 billion.[891] Costs to the Iranian economy were estimated at $40–50 billion, around 10% of GDP.[892] The monetary costs of Iranian attacks were much lower than the costs of neutralizing them: PATRIOT and THAAD interceptors are $4 million and $12 million, respectively, as opposed to $50,000 for a Shahed drone.[319]
The war has also increased indirect military costs due to the rapid depletion of US munitions stockpiles. According to reports, the United States has used large quantities of high-cost interceptors such as Patriot and THAAD missiles, further increasing replacement expenses and strain on defense budgets. The depletion of stockpiles has also affected US arms transfers and procurement decisions, including reports that Washington is reconsidering or delaying the transfer of Tomahawk cruise missiles to Germany and reviewing Germany's request for Typhon launchers due to limited availability.[893][894][895][896] Reports also indicate delays in missile deliveries to Japan and new procurement efforts, including an $842 million agreement for JASSM-ER cruise missiles from Denmark. US officials have raised concerns that existing stockpiles may be insufficient for sustained operations in multiple theaters, including in the event of a future conflict in Asia. The Pentagon has also expanded efforts to increase production capacity through programs aimed at scaling lower-cost "affordable mass" munitions and involving non-traditional defense contractors.[897][898][893] The US defence industry saw record stock surges during the war.[899]
Environmental impacts
Airstrikes on industrial and fuel hubs have released a chronic toxic cocktail of benzene, heavy metals, and persistent 'forever chemicals' (PFAS), triggering 'black rain' in major cities and causing long-term health degradation for civilians.[900]
The high oil prices driven by wars in the Middle East, including Iran, created a surge in profits of oil companies, pushing them to increase production as opposed to targets set by the Paris climate agreement. The planned expansion is projected to exceed the International Energy Agency’s regular scenario - a 5.9% increase in oil and gas production in the 2020s, leading to a 2.9 °C (5.2 °F) global temperature increase.[901]
Reactions
Internationally, The war elicited reactions from nation-states, faith leaders, and global governance bodies, as well as protests, unrest, and coverage from global media. Some US allies and partners supported the attack, while others expressed hesitation. Opinion in the Global South was less favorable to the attacks. Most countries did not take a definitive side in the conflict but called for peace. In the Middle East, Saudi Arabia, Egypt and the Gulf states criticized the Iranian attacks. In Asia, many condemned the attacks or called for peace. In Europe, the majority condemned the Iranian retaliatory strikes, many called for peace without taking sides, and some condemned the US and Israel. In Oceania, most countries supported the strikes. The Americas exhibited a mix of reactions, while most African countries did not make official remarks. The war provoked protests against it, as well as others in support of the Iranian opposition.
Opinion on the attacks was divided within Iran, with many Iranians mourning casualties and attending large public rallies in support of the government. Others celebrated the attacks and expressed hope for regime change, particularly those within or affiliated with the exiled opposition. An anti-government uprising hoped for by the United States and Israel did not materialize, with some analysts saying that the attacks had bolstered the government's domestic popularity.
In the United States, public opinion was mostly against the war, though split along partisan lines. Congress was divded on the issue of a War Powers Resolution, and ultimately failed to pass it. Israeli opinion was overwhelmingly in favor of the war.
Diplomatic efforts
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In 2025 and 2026, Iran and the United States began a series of negotiations aimed at reaching a nuclear peace agreement, following a letter from US president Donald Trump to Iranian supreme leader Ali Khamenei, setting a 60-day deadline for Iran to reach an agreement. After the deadline passed without an agreement in June 2025, Israel launched airstrikes against Iran, starting the Twelve-Day War. As of June 28, 2026[update], there were three rounds of talks before the Islamabad talks that led to the Islamabad Memorandum, and two rounds of technical talks.
The first round was held in Oman on April 12, 2025, led by US special envoy Steve Witkoff and Iranian foreign minister Abbas Araghchi. A second round of Omani-mediated talks took place in Rome on April 19, 2025, again between Witkoff and Araghchi. This was followed by a third round in Muscat around a week later; an expert-level meeting to develop a framework for a possible nuclear agreement was led by Michael Anton for the US and by Majid Takht-Ravanchi for Iran.
June 2026 Memorandum of Understanding
After concluding that continued hostilities would risk economic calamity,[902] Donald Trump signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) on behalf of the United States during a ceremony at the Palace of Versailles on 17 June 2026.[902] The signing followed an earlier, digital signing of the MOU by the foreign ministers of the two principal belligerents.[903] In the MOU, the United States and Iran agreed to suspend hostilities for 60 days and to establish a framework for a permanent peace under which the US would make major financial and political concessions to the Islamic Republic of Iran.[904][905][902]
Trump characterized the MOU as representing the "unconditional surrender" of Iran.[904] Iran declared the document as an enduring "record of US failure".[902] The Foreign Policy, and The Atlantic described the outcome of the war as a "defeat" for the United States and Israel.[906][907] The Independent said that America had lost the war, and called Iran's now-proven ability to close of the Strait of Hormuz a "weapon of mass economic destruction of unique power" and "far more useful option than any nuclear device."[908] Jeremy Brown, international editor for the BBC, remarked that "the US and Israeli air forces scored a series of tactical victories. But they were not enough to avoid a strategic defeat."[909] Robert Kagan, a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution, said the deal was "a total victory for Iran and a total defeat for the United States," citing major US concessions. He called the increased Iranian control of the Strait of Hormuz "a major blow to the United States' position in the region, and it's also a major blow to Israel's security".[910] American diplomat Richard Haas described the deal as "a massive victory for Iran," pointing to the failure of the United States to topple the Iranian government, Iran's retention of its drone and missile arsenal, deferral of issues regarding its nuclear program, continued ability to support its network of non-state allies in the Middle East, sanctions relief and future reconstruction fund, and a commitment from the United States not to interfere in Iran's internal affairs. He also said US-Israel relations were badly damaged, and that Israel's "freedom of action has been significantly curtailed."[911] Paul Musgrave, an associate professor of government at Georgetown University in Qatar, said the deal indicated that "the Iranians had greater strategic patience, greater strategic leverage and the ability to shape a deal that was always going to be more favorable to them relative to the Americans." Susan Rice described the MOU as "a jaw-dropping, horrific surrender document complete with hundreds of billions in reparations."[912] Writing for The Indian Express, journalist Mashkoora Khan said that the outcome depended on who is being asked: for Trump, a decisive victory; for Iran, a defeat of Washington because it survived, adding that "Independent analysts are similarly divided, and many conclude that nearly everyone lost something."[913]
Iranian chief negotiator Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf stated Iran would unilaterally begin imposing permanent tolls on ships passing the Strait of Hormuz 60 days after the withdrawal of the US Navy.[902] The war helped entrench the power of the IRGC within Iranian politics and society,[914] and, according to Robert Pape, began the process of transforming Iran into a major power.[915]
Analysis
A number of analysts have argued that, despite massive military and economic damage to Iran and the killing of large portions of the country's leadership, on a strategic level the war has been a success for Iran and a failure for the United States.[916][917][918][919][920] The war demonstrated to Iranian leadership that the country could survive a full-scale military assault by the United States, with the result that Iran "has lost its fear of war" with the US.[917][921][916] In turn, Iran demonstrated that it could threaten US bases, undermining a widespread image of American military invulnerability.[922][923] Most importantly, the war demonstrated to both Iranian and US leadership that attacking ships passing through the Strait of Hormuz was an extremely effective Iranian strategic option—and one that, unlike the Iranian nuclear program, could be pursued at relatively low cost using asymmetric military tactics.[920][918][919]
Many experts argue that the war is illegal under US law because launching a war requires congressional authorization. They are also considered to be in violation of the UN Charter's prohibition on the use of force, because the attacks fail to meet the criteria for self-defense and lack authorization from the United Nations Security Council.[924] In response, the Trump administration claimed that previous presidents have also launched unauthorized military actions, and dismissed international law.[924][925] In international criminal law, experts have identified the attacks as a crime of aggression,[926][927] specifically as a war of aggression.[928][929] The US attack also violates the Algiers Accords (1981) in which the US agreed not to intervene politically or militarily in Iran's internal affairs. Numerous critics and analysts identified the US-Israeli attack with a more open embrace of expansionism[930][931] and imperialism by the Trump administration,[932][933] and a departure from the norms of the liberal international order.[934]
Donald Trump's threats to destroy Iranian infrastructure have drawn warnings from international law experts that such actions could constitute war crimes under the Rome Statute,[935] and be actionable under universal jurisdiction.[936]
See also
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Notes
- Primarily the Persian Gulf and the Levant, as well as Cyprus (Akrotiri and Dhekelia) and the South Caucasus.
- There are disputed accounts on whether the British Indian Ocean Territory was attacked in March 2026. Iran denied attacking the Diego Garcia military base, while the United Kingdom confirmed the attack without providing evidence it took place.
- According to Reuters, citing Western and Iranian officials, the Saudi Air Force launched numerous unpublicized "tit-for-tat" strikes on Iranian soil in late March 2026, in retaliation for Iranian attacks on Saudi Arabia.[1] The New York Times, citing US officials, corroborated reports of Saudi strikes on Iran.[2] Reuters also reported that the Saudi Air Force struck Iran-backed Iraqi militias near the Iraqi–Saudi border around the time of the 7 April ceasefire.[3]
- According to The Wall Street Journal and Bloomberg, citing "people familiar with the matter",[4][5] and The New York Times, citing current and former US officials,[2] the UAE discreetly carried out retaliatory attacks against Iran, including a strike on an oil refinery at Lavan Island on 8 April.[4]
- According to The Wall Street Journal, Kuwait launched attacks on Iran-backed Iraqi militias from its own territory.[6] Iraqi officials reported at least two rocket attacks from Kuwaiti territory in April; according to Reuters, it was unclear whether they were launched by the Kuwaiti Armed Forces or the US military.[3] On 1 May, Kuwait said its soldiers exchanged fire with six members of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps, and arrested four, during an Iranian raid on Bubiyan Island.[7]
- On July 13, 2026, the Yemeni government, alongside Saudi Arabia, conducted airstrikes targeting the Houthi-controlled Sanaa International Airport. The Yemeni Ministry of Defence later confirmed their direct involvement, stating the operation specifically targeted the runway to prevent an Iranian aircraft from landing.[8][9][10][11]
- Since 2 March; for further information, see 2026 Lebanon war.
- Since 28 March; for further information, see 2026 Houthi strikes on Israel.[12]
- For further information, see 2026 United States–Israeli strikes on Iraq.[16][17]
- Lebanon's position in the war is unclear; it has been attacked both by Israel and the Axis of Resistance. For more information see 2026 Lebanon war.
- See Syria in the 2026 Iran war regarding shelling by Hezbollah and drone attacks by groups affiliated with the Islamic Resistance in Iraq.
- 104 sailors killed and 32 injured off the coast of Sri Lanka.[59]
- Hebrew: מִבְצַע שְׁאָגַת הָאֲרִי, romanized: Mivtsá She'agát Ha'arí, pronounced [mivˈt͡sä ʃe̞.äˈɡätʰ hä.ʔäˈʁi]
- The problems indicated by the UNSC during 2006 in their first resolution were specifically "uranium enrichment[94] and reprocessing"[95] in the second resolution of that year; additionally use or attempted use of "heavy water".[96]
- Sometimes included in the "Axis of Resistance".[98][99]
- Hebrew: מִבְצַע שְׁאָגַת הָאֲרִי, romanized: Mivtsá She'agát Ha'arí, pronounced [mivˈt͡sä ʃe̞.äˈɡätʰ hä.ʔäˈʁi]
- In 2010, South Korean corvette ROKS Cheonan was sunk near the border with North Korea. An investigation into the incident by a group of countries concluded that it was sunk by a torpedo launched by a North Korean Yeono-class midget submarine, though North Korea denied any responsibility.[268][269]
- The U.S. Navy initially said two sailors were treated for non-life-threatening injuries, then acknowledged that a third had been medically evacuated for further treatment.[716] Several media outlets reported that as many as 200 sailors were also treated for symptoms of smoke inhalation.[717][718][719]
