Apu (god)
Mountain spirits in Andean cultures
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In the traditional religion and mythology of Peru and Bolivia, an apu is the term used to describe the spirits of mountains[1] and sometimes solitary rocks, typically displaying anthropomorphic features,[citation needed] that protect the local people.[2] While some researchers, such as Christian Mader and colleagues, view the mountains as the dwelling place of powerful deities and ancestors,[3] others contend that the apus are the mountains themselves.[citation needed]
Apus are considered the most powerful of nature spirits,[2] can be considered either masculine or feminine,[4] and have varying personalities, with some being protectors and others being malicious.[5] Apus are the most active in the month of August.[6]
Apus are one type of wak'a, which refer to material manifestation of the divine, and can include temples, shrines, sculptures, natural landforms, as well as other material objects and bodies.[3]
Apus are frequently associated with condors[4] and are often seen as ancestors.[7]
Meanings
The word apu has several possible meanings, depending on context.
Apu means "Lord" in Quechua[8] as well as sacred mountain or mountain deity.[3] The Inca religion uses the term 'apu' to refer to a mountain with a living spirit; the body and energy of the mountain together form the spirit's wasi ("home" or "temple").[9][better source needed] A number of different terms are used for different types of apu:
- Ayllu Apu – protector of a village (such as Apu Manuel Pinta)[2][10][better source needed]
- Llaqta Apu – protector of a small region (Apu Mama Simona)[10][11][better source needed]
- Suyu Apu – protector of a large region (such as Apu Salkantay or Apu Ausangate)[10][12][better source needed]
Besides mountains there are other living beings that are considered apu – the so-called Tiqsi Apu. In the Andean tradition, Pachamama (Cosmic Mother), Wiraqucha (God or Cosmic Father), Tayta Inti (Father Sun), Ttita Wayra (Father Wind), Mama Unu (Mother Water), Mama Killa (Mother Moon) and Mama Ch'aska (Mother Stars) can be seen all over the world, which is why they are known as Tiqsi Apu, meaning "Global Apu". Jesus and Mother Mary for the same reason are also known as Tiqsi Apu.[9][better source needed]
History
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The veneration of mountain peaks possibly dates back to the Initial Period of the pre-hispanic Andes, which took place from 2000 to 900 BCE.[4]
The Inca Empire placed their buildings, shrines, and terraces at sacred locations including apus and abnormal outcrops, which were viewed as shrines of Pachamama. By doing so, they were able to transform the power of the land to themselves, give themselves spiritual authority, and control access to these sacred spaces.[1]
The Incas also frequently used mountains as sites of child sacrifices which may have functioned to request irrigation water or to claim legitimacy.[4]
As Catholicism was adopted by Indigenous people in the Andes, there was a decrease in and hostility towards traditional Andean religious beliefs, including the worship of apus. This hostility is expressed in the Indigenous artist Francisco Chihuantito's painting Virgen de Monserrat.[1]
Relation to other Andean mountain deities and each other
Apu is the most common name for mountain spirits in the Cuzco region of Peru, while they are usually called awkillu in Huanuco, wamani in Ayacucho, and machula, achachila, or mallku in different regions in Bolivia. Despite the various names, Victoria Castro and Carlos Aldunate argue that due to their similarities, they likely represent a Pan-Andean type of spirit.[13] Stella Nair also views apus as Pan-Andean spirits with regional differences.[1]
Johan Reinhard states that these various names for mountain deities are sometimes used as different names for the same type of spirit, but are also used in certain regions to describe the deities who occupy certain levels in a spirit hierarchy, with the most powerful deities residing in the tallest mountains.[14]
Patrick Ryan Williams and Donna J. Nash state that Andean mountain spirits form a hierarchy based on the height of their peaks, and that apus communicate with each other across regions, with the taller and higher-ranking apus giving orders to the shorter and lower-ranking ones, in order to properly manage natural resources.[4] Apus can also have romantic and familial ties with each other.[4][5]
Role
Apus not only serve as a protector for local people near the mountain they reside in, but can also be called upon to assist other people who are not in the vicinity.[2][better source needed] Apus also are connected to water, fertility, and agriculture in the area near where they reside[3][4][7][15] and are responsible for the distribution of natural resources.[4] The role of mountain deities as a protector in Andean religion also makes them serve as war deities.[14]
If an apu is offended, they might cause harm to people residing nearby their mountain, through illness, accidents, natural disasters, or other means.[4][7][14]
In Andean communities, the relationship humans have with each other and with deities is often described with the word ayni,[6] a Quechuan and Aymaran term meaning "reciprocity".[6][16] In this system, relationships are maintained through continually giving and receiving gifts. The need for rituals to be continually performed, means that the relationship humans have with the divine can oscillate between being in balance and being imbalanced.[6]
For the Quechua-speaking Q'ero community, different entities in the universe live according to a hierarchy, with apus and Pachamama on the top, then humans, and then alpacas and llamas. Ancestors also occupy a level in the hierarchy.[17]
Modern day veneration
Specific rites
Apus are still venerated today.[1] For example, in the Palpa district of Peru, local people will bring seawater to the summit of the apu, Cerro Llamocca to ask for rain during periods of drought.[3]
Another rite that is performed for apus is pago, in which one blows on coca leaves to bring their prayers to the apu. The specific details of this ritual vary in different communities, but they usually involve coca leaves, llama fat, sugar alcohol, cigarettes, and sometimes involved animal sacrifices.[4]
In the Uchumiri Community in Yanaquihua District in Peru, the Esquela Tusuy dance is a ritual that honors both Pachamama as well as Apu Coropuna, in order to provide for the safe return of llama herders.[18]
Apu are also venerated through the incremental building of stone piles called apachetas by passer-bys.[3]
Veneration among Christians
Apus and other mountain deities are also venerated among Christians in the Andes due to religious syncretism. For example, some Peruvian Christians believe Saint Peter holds the key to the spirit world within Apu Coropuna.[14][19]
In addition, certain saints may be associated with specific mountain deities, and some areas[example needed] use the cross as a symbol for the mountain deities.[14]
Some Evangelical Q'ero converts will continue to venerate apus and Pachamama in secret.[6]
Apus and environmentalism
Some Indigenous Andeans view the effects of climate change as expressions of apus' wrath for disrespecting and corrupting the natural world. In this worldview, apus are turned to as ethical leaders to guide humans towards a respectful coexistence with the Earth.[7]
Traditionally, The Q'ero community decided when to plant tubers for a successful harvest, by appointing a community member as an arariwa, to observe the Pleiades and make offerings to an apu and Pachamama. A poor harvest is viewed as the arariwa failing to fulfill their role. In recent times, climate change has increased the chances of a poor harvest, making the arariwa's task increasingly difficult.[6][17]
Some Q'ero view the effects of climate change as a scientific phenomenon and others view it as the end of the current cycle of time.[6] However, most Q'ero view the effects of climate change as them losing their ability to communicate with and receive gifts from apus and Pachamama. This is viewed as the result of the Q'ero's abandoning some of their traditional ceremonial practices that link them with apus and Pachamama, and the decreasing scope and participation of the practices that remain. Evangelical churches, particularly the Maranata Church, proselytizing to the Q'ero and the conversion of some Q'ero people to these faiths, are also viewed as a contributor to the fraying of relationships with non-human divinites.[6][17]
However, despite the increase in climate change related devastation, many Q'eros still venerate apus and Pachamama, and note that this is not the first time they have had difficulty influencing the natural environment. In order to survive the impacts of climate change, many Q'eros are working to re-establish frayed relationships, and maintain existing relationships with apus and Pachamama.[17]
Specific apu
| Name | Region | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Ausangate | Peru, Cuzco region | [2][6] |
| Salkantay | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Mama Simona | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Pillku Urqu | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Manuel Pinta | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Wanakawri | Peru, Cuzco region | [2][5] |
| Pachatusan | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Pikchu | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Saksaywaman | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Viraqochan | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Pukin | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Sinqa | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Akamari | [clarification needed] | [2] |
| Antikuna | Peru, Junín region | [citation needed] |
| Chachani | Peru, Arequipa region | [citation needed] |
| Kimsa Chata | [clarification needed] | [citation needed] |
| Illampu | Bolivia, La Paz region) | [2] |
| Lady of Illimani | [clarification needed] | [2] |
| Machu Picchu | Peru, Machupicchu District | [2] |
| Pitusiray | [clarification needed] | [2] |
| Putucusi | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Qullqipunku | Peru, Cuzco region | [citation needed] |
| Sinaqara | Peru, Cuzco region | [citation needed] |
| Tunupa | Bolivia, Potosí region | [2] |
| Willka Wiqi (Wakay Willka) | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Wamanrasu | Peru, Huancavelica region | [citation needed] |
| Wayna Picchu | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Yanantin | Peru, Cuzco region | [2] |
| Cerro Baúl | Peru, Moquegua region | [4] |
| Pichu Pichu | Peru, Arequipa region | [4] |
| Coline | Peru, Puno region | [4] |
| Llamocca | Peru, Arequipa region | [3] |