Battle of Koyulhisar (1461)

Uzun Hasan's desire to place Trebizond under his protection was not merely a consequence of his alliance with the Greeks; he did not wish to see these coastal regions, which he had set his sights on, fall into Ottoman hands. For this reason, with or without provocation, he began encroaching upon Ottoman territories and in the process captured Koyulhisar. In response, Mehmed II dispatched Şarabdar Hamza Pasha to retake the fortress, but the pasha was unsuccessful and returned without achieving his objective. Moreover, this situation led to Aq Qoyunlu forces appearing even more frequently and assertively within Ottoman lands.^[1]

The increase in Uzun Hasan's incursions prompted Mehmed II to take personal command of the matter. The objective of this campaign was the capture of Trebizond. However, when Mehmed II marched against Trebizond, he first focused on neutralizing Uzun Hasan's forces, which could potentially strike him from the rear. For this reason, Mehmed II abandoned the coastal route and turned toward Sivas.^[2]

Uzun Hasan sought to block the passage of the Ottoman army by holding the mountain passes of the Taurus Mountains. Upon learning this, Mehmed II aimed to outflank Uzun Hasan and his army from the rear and therefore turned toward the extremely rugged and difficult route leading to Mardin. Mahmud Pasha's forces advanced as the vanguard. These units seized the most strategic points in the region, then cleared forests and improved the narrow and rugged paths along the army's route, widening and leveling them. In this way, Mehmed II sought to prevent his opponent from carrying out guerrilla attacks and instead aimed to force a battle in open terrain.^[3]

The Taurus Mountains were extremely high and characterized by narrow passes, deep ravines, sheer cliffs, and steep ridges. In short, the region contained many dangerous points. It was not easy for a regular army to pass through such terrain; nevertheless, Mehmed II maneuvered his army—composed of infantry and cavalry—with great precision and in full battle order, crossing the mountains within eighteen days.^[4]

In terms of formation, the infantry always marched at the front, while the baggage and pack animals—the army's weight—were positioned in the center. The cavalry formed the rear guard and remained behind, together with Mehmed II at the center. Whenever the army passed through narrow defiles, the formation was adjusted: the forward and rear units were shaped into a horn-like formation with pointed ends, thereby forming a defensive front. On both flanks of the vanguard marched archers and kapıkulu guards. The kapıkulu troops carried spears on their shoulders, while the archers advanced with bows drawn and arrows nocked, ready to respond to attacks that might come from multiple directions.^[5]