Battle of Sokoto

News of the 1890 French conquest of Ségou likely reached Sokoto before the end of 1891. By that time, the Sokoto authorities were aware of the rivalry between the European powers of France, Britain and Germany to conquer the caliphate. Later in 1894–95, they witnessed the rivalry between France and Britain (through the Royal Niger Company) in Borgu, Yawuri and Nupeland as both sought to control the Niger River region.^{[1]: 25–26 [2]}

Despite this, Sokoto was preoccupied with the more immediate threat posed by warlord Rabeh az-Zubayr, who had conquered neighbouring Kanem-Bornu in 1893. When the Royal Niger Company (RNC) invaded and destroyed Bida in January 1897, ousting its emir, the Emir of Gwandu opted for diplomacy to resolve the conflict, while the Caliph of Sokoto, Abdurrahman Atiku, did not retaliate. A month later, the Company occupied Ilorin, inflicting heavy casualties on its population.^{[1]: 26 [3]} The heavy defeats suffered by these emirates signaled to other emirs and the Caliph that the foreign traders, previously regarded as musta'min, were no longer willing to remain subordinate and possessed superior weaponry and a well-organised force.^[1]: 3–4

In early 1898, the arrival of the deposed ruler of Ségou in Sokoto and the French expedition under Marius Gabriel Cazemajou alarmed Caliph Abdurrahman. He permitted the RNC to send a force toward Sokoto under the guise of providing assistance against the French. The Company's actual aim was to establish a military post near Sokoto and to secure the Caliph's approval for a Resident in the capital. When Cazemajou agreed to withdraw from the Caliphate, the Company continued its advance. Sensing the threat, Caliph Abdurrahman sent the Emir of Kontagora with 7,000 horsemen to intercept the British and warn them to turn back, which the Company force then did.^{[1]: 26 [4]: 196–197 [5]: 99–100}

Following these events, the Caliph's attitude toward the British became increasingly hostile. In 1900, he formally suspended relations with the RNC and attempted to shut down its military garrisons and posts within his territory. Despite this, Frederick Lugard proclaimed the establishment of the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in January 1900, after the British government took control of the Company. Sokoto immediately rejected British claims to sovereignty over the Caliphate. When Caliph Abdurrahman received High Commissioner Lugard's "Proclamation", he read it aloud to his councilors and dismissed the messenger without a reply.^{[1]: 27–28 [4]: 221–222}

With the founding of the Protectorate and the arrival of reinforcements, many of whom had fought in the Anglo-Ashanti wars, Lugard set up his headquarters at Zungeru and began extending British authority further north from the Middle Niger.^[6]: 134 Following the "Proclamation", the emirate of Ilorin immediately accepted British rule, while Bida offered only limited resistance before its emir fled as British forces occupied the capital. By early 1902, the British had also captured Kontagora, Yola, Muri, Bauchi, Gombe, and Zaria. With these conquests, Lugard turned his attention to Kano and eventually Sokoto.^[1]: 24

In early 1901, the British attacked the emirate of Kontagora. Its emir Ibrahim Nagwamatse had resisted British authority in the Middle Niger region. The Northern Nigeria Regiment of the West African Frontier Force (WAFF) defeated the Kontagoran army and occupied its capital. Emir Ibrahim escaped capture and fled with his remaining forces, reportedly carrying out raids in the Zaria Emirate. The Emir of Zaria appealed to the Caliph to restrain Ibrahim but Sokoto failed to resolve the situation. As a result, Emir Muhammad Kwassau accepted Lugard's offer of military assistance against the fugitive emir. But even after Ibrahim was captured by British forces, they remained in Zaria and established a garrison outside the city. Despite the emir's objections, they also appointed a Resident. When Emir Muhammad refused to meet Lugard at Zungeru, the British arrested and exiled him.^{[1]: 16–17 [4]: 244–247}

After occupying Zaria, the WAFF attacked Kano in February 1903. Although Kano's defenders resisted, they were defeated and the emirate was subdued. However, the emir had already escaped to Sokoto with many of his chiefs and contingents, following the death of Caliph Abdurrahman in late 1902.^{[1]: 17–21 [4]: 279}

Opinions within the Caliphate were divided on how to respond to the growing British threat. Some officials supported armed resistance, though this faction diminished over time as more emirates were subdued by the British. Others supported mass hijra (migration) to Mecca, arguing that life under Christian rule would compromise their ability to practice Islam. The British repeatedly tried to reassure the rulers of the Caliphate on retaining the emirates' ruling dynasties in office and letting them carry on their religious duties very much as before, as was demonstrated in already occupied emirates. This policy, combined with the perceived futility of resistance, led many Sokoto officials to favour submission, hoping it would be temporary.^{[1]: 27–30 [4]: 280 [7]}

Caliph Abdurrahman, however, remained ready to meet the British aggression with force, motivated both by religious conviction and a belief that victory was still possible. In a letter sent to High Commissioner Frederick Lugard in May 1902, following the British occupation of Bauchi, he wrote: "Between us and you there are no dealings except as between Mussulmans and unbelievers, war, as God Almighty has enjoined on us." He added, "There is no power or strength save in God on high." Lugard interpreted the letter as a declaration of war but did not act immediately, believing the letter was not enough to justify an invasion to the Colonial Office.^{[4]: 258–259 [5]: 168}

Caliph Abdurrahman died in October 1902, and his death marked the end of the official resistance policy. His successor, Caliph Muhammadu Attahiru I, consulted his advisers and agreed to undertake a hijra. While preparations were underway, news arrived in Sokoto of the approach of a British force.^{[1]: 28 [4]: 280}