Dalabon language
Australian Aboriginal language
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Dalabon is a Gunwinyguan language of Arnhem Land, Australia. It is a severely endangered language,[3] with perhaps as few as three fluent speakers remaining as of 2018.[1] Dalabon is also known as Dangbon (the Kune or Mayali name), Ngalkbun (the Jawoyn name), and Buwan (the Rembarrnga name).[2]
Classification
Dalabon belongs to the Gunwinyguan languages branch of the Arnhem languages; its nearest relatives are Kunwinjku, Kune, Mayali (varieties often grouped together as Bininj Kunwok), and Kunbarlang. Its next closest relatives are Rembarrnga, and other languages within the Gunwinyguan family, including Jawoyn, Ngalakgan, Ngandi, Wubuy, and Enindhilyakwa.
Official status
Dalabon has no official status. Local schools spent years holding sporadic programs teaching Dalabon, but these operations did not receive enough governmental support. Therefore, the condition of the programs is still vulnerable.
Dialects
Given the limited number of Dalabon speakers, the study of dialects has become challenging to investigate. Speakers recall a distinction between two different types of speech, dalabon-djurrkdjurrk ("fast." "lively") and dalabon-murduk ("articulate"). However, no significant difference has been found between the two speeches.
Phonology and orthography
Consonants
There are 22 or 23 phonemic consonants in Dalabon, depending on the phonemic status of /h/. A table containing the consonant phonemes is given below with their orthographic representation (in angle brackets).
| Peripheral | Apico- | Lamino-Palatal | Glottal | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Velar | Bilabial | Alveolar | Retroflex | ||||
| Stops | Lenis (short) | ⟨k⟩ /k/ | ⟨b⟩ /p/ | ⟨d⟩ t | ⟨rd⟩ /ʈ/ | ⟨dj⟩ /c/ | ⟨h⟩ /ʔ/ |
| Fortis (long) | ⟨kk⟩ /kː/ | ⟨bb⟩ /pː/ | ⟨dd⟩ /tː/ | ⟨rdd⟩ /ʈː/ | ⟨djj⟩ /cː/ | ||
| Nasal | ⟨ng⟩ /ŋ/ | ⟨m⟩ /m/ | ⟨n⟩ /n/ | ⟨rn⟩ /ɳ/ | ⟨nj⟩ /ɲ/ | ||
| Lateral | ⟨l⟩ /l/ | ⟨rl⟩ /ɭ/ | |||||
| Rhotic | ⟨rr⟩ /r/ | ⟨r⟩ /ɻ/ | |||||
| Semi-vowel | ⟨w⟩ /w/ | ⟨y⟩ /j/ | |||||
| Fricatives | ⟨H⟩ (/h/) | ||||||
Vowels
There are 6 vowels in Dalabon. A table containing the vowel phonemes is given below with their orthographic representation (in angle brackets).
Phonotactics
Like many Australian languages, Dalabon restricts the alveolar trill rr [r] from occurring word-initially.[4]
The glottal stop h [ʔ] is also restricted to occurring in syllable codas in Dalabon, as is the case for most Australian languages with this segment;[5] however, the glottal stop is also permitted within prosodic words rather than restricted to their right edge.
Long (or fortis) stops are characteristically limited to word-medial position[6], just as they are in other Central Arnhem languages featuring a fortis/lenis (or short/long) stop contrast.[7]
The syllable structure of Dalabon is CV(C)(C)(C), or more specifically:
CV(L)(N)(h) or CV(L)(S)
where:
- L is a liquid consonant (lateral or rhotic)
- N is a nasal consonant
- S is a peripheral consonant
- h is a glottal consonant.
Such complex codas are not unusual, and all combinations are enumerated as follows (words and translations taken from the dictionary[8]).
Complex coda of two consonants
C2 C1 |
_k | _b | _ng | _h |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| l_ | yalkngalk /jalk.ŋalk/
"native bee sp." |
kolb /kolp/
"sound of spear slotting into spearthrower" |
kalngbuy /kalŋ.buj/ | kolh-no /kolʔ.no/
"liquid, water" |
| rl_ | borlkmû /boɭk.mɨ/
"(to) fall out" |
borlbmû /boɭp.mɨ/
"(to) be accustomed to" |
lurlh(mû) /luɭʔ(.mɨ)/
"hop of a riverine wallaby" | |
| rr_ | kerrkban /kerk.ban/
"(to) dodge" |
yang-warrbmû /jaŋ.warp.mɨ/
"(to) tell lies" |
marrngkidj /marŋ.kic/
"sorcerer, clever man" |
bukarrh /bu.karʔ/
"top (of something)" |
| r_ | berk /beɻk/ | wirbmang /wiɻp.maŋ/
"(to) pull out from flesh" |
kerng-no /keɻŋ.no/
"jaw" |
warhdû /waɻʔ.dɨ/
"devil, white person" |
| ng_ | wanjingh /wa.ɲiŋʔ/
"one" | |||
| m_ | njimhmû /ɲimʔ.mɨ/
"(to) wink" | |||
| n_ | kanh /kanʔ/
"this (identified)" | |||
| rn_ | nornhnornh /noɳʔ.noɳʔ/
"stone axe" | |||
| nj_ | keninjhbi /ke.niɲʔ.bi/ |
Complex coda of three consonants
C2,C3 C1 |
_ngh |
|---|---|
| l_ | kalngHmû /kalŋhmɨ/
"(to) climb" |
| rl_ | njorlnghmû /ɲoɭŋʔmɨ/
"(to) gobble up" |
| rr_ | ngarnarrngh /ŋaɳarŋʔ/ |
| r_ | modjarngh /mocaɻŋʔ/ |
Phonological processes
Dalabon has a pattern of eliding unstressed vowels and unstressed syllables. For example, the word /'cabale/ 'shoulder blade' is often realized as ['cable].[9]
Prosody
The location of phrasal stress in Dalabon appears one or two peaks with an initial rise into the first peak at the left edge of the constituent and a final fall at the right edge of the constituent.[10]
Grammar
Although there is no complete grammatical description of the language, a number of aspects of Dalabon grammar have been described, including its bound pronominal system,[11] polysynthetic word structure,[12] verb conjugations,[13] the use of subordination strategies,[14] nominal subclasses,[15] the demonstrative system,[16] and the use of optional ergativity.[17]
Morphology
The structure of Dalabon verbs:[18]
| -12 | -11 | -10 | -9 | -8 | -7 | -6 | -5 | -4 | -3 | -2 | -1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Obj pron | Subj pron | SURB | SEQ | CAUS | MISC | BEN/INST | MISC | GIN | BPIN | NUM | COM | STEM | RR | TAM | Case |
- SEQ: sequential ‘and then’
- CAUS: ‘because’
- MISC: various adverbial type prefixes
- BEN: benefactive applicative
- GIN: ‘generic’ incorporated nouns
- BPIN: ‘body part’ incorporated nouns
- NUM: ‘number’ prefixes
- COM: comitative applicative
- RR: reflexive/reciprocal
- TAM: tense/aspect mood
The diminutive enclitic =wurd is derived from noun wurd 'woman's child', its reduplication wurdurd means 'child'. wurd can attach to most word classes and functions in 3 ways of meaning: to denote small objects, to add emotional connotations and to serve as pragmatic functions (especially for interactional softening). The examples are shown below.[19]
Bad-dulum-no=wurd
stone-hill-fill=DIM
kanidjah
there
ka-h-di.
3SG-R-stand/be.PRS
'There is a small stone hill there.' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Wa:h
INTERJ
ka-h-rakka-ng=wurd.
3SG-R-fall-PFV=DIM
'Oh, he fell over poor fellow.' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Syntax
Dalabon is a head-marking language. Dalabon has limited use of subordinate clauses, but it has a distinctive subordination strategy, which is to attach pronominal prefixes to the verb, and marked verbs are used for subordinate clause functions[18]
| Pronominal Prefixes | Subordinate1 | Subordinate2 |
|---|---|---|
| 1sg | nga- | ngaye- |
| 2sg | dja- | djaya- |
| 3sg | ka- | kaye- |
| 1dis | nge- | ngey- |
| 3dis | ke- | key- |
| 3du | barra- | barre- |
| 3pl | bala- | bale- |
subordinate1: the unmarked form of prefixes to show subordinate status, used when the status is overt by other means.
subordinate2: used when prefixes are the only way to show subordination.
dis: disharmonic, meaning odd-numbered generations.
Examples are shown below:
bala-buh-ngong+boyenj-ni-nj
3pl-because-mob+big-be-PST.PFV
mahkih
because
‘..because there were so many of them.’
yila-h-yang-wona-wona-n
1pl/3-REAL-voice-REDUP-hear-PRES
yale-yu-yu.
1pl.SUBORD-REDUP-sleep.PRES
‘we heard his(dingo's) voice as we were sleeping.’
karrkkany
hawk.sp.
ka-h-ngun
3/3l-REAL-eat.PRES
kaye-do-n.
3.SUBORD-die-PRES
‘the hawk eats animals that die.’
Vocabulary
| Dalabon | Gloss | Dalabon | Gloss | Dalabon | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| bim | "picture" | kolh-no | "liquid" | wadda | "home, house, camp" |
| biyi | "man(men)" | kung | "honey" | wah | "water" |
| bonj | "O.K." | kunj | "kangaroo" | walu-no | "the absolute law" |
| boyenj | "big" | labbarl | "waterhole" | wirridjih | "taboo(s)" |
| burrama | "good, healthy" | langu | "hand/finger" | wokan | "speak, talk, tell, name, evoke, communicate" |
| dabarngh | "yesterday" | mah | "also" | wol | "flame" |
| dengu-no | "foot/toe" | mambard | "billycan" | wurdurd | "child(children)" |
| djihkun | "spoon" | marrumbu | "lover | wurrhwurrungu | "the elders" |
| dulum | "hill" | men-no | "conscience, the thoughts of a living creature" | yabok | "sister" |
| kardu | "maybe" | mey | "(veget.) food" | yang | "language, speech, what one says" |
| kakkak-no | "grandkin" | murduk | "hard/strong" | yidjnja | "have" |
| kenbo | "later" | nayunghyungki | "mythical ancestors" | ||
| kinikun | "different" | ngalyurr | "thunder" | ||
| kirdikird | "woman(women)" | ngarrk | "ache" | ||
| kirribruk | "true, real, honest, fair, generous" | Ngurrurdu | "emu" |