Ceasefires in Myanmar
Ceasefires ratified by the Myanmar government
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Ceasefires in Myanmar have been heavily utilized by the Burmese government as a policy to contain ethnic rebel groups and create tentative truces. The first ceasefire was arranged by the State Law and Order Restoration Council in 1989, specifically spearheaded by Khin Nyunt, then the Chief of Military Intelligence, with the Kokang-led National Democratic Alliance Army, which had recently split from the Communist Party of Burma due to internal conflicts.[1]
Background
The internal conflict in Myanmar began after the country's independence in 1948, as successive central governments of Myanmar (or Burma) fought myriad ethnic and political rebellions. Some of the earliest insurgencies were by Burmese-dominated "multi-colored" leftists, and by the Karen National Union (KNU). The KNU fought to carve out an independent Karen state from large swaths of Lower Myanmar. Other ethnic rebellions broke out in the early 1960s after the central government refused to consider a federal style government. By the early 1980s, politically oriented armed insurgencies had largely withered away, but ethnic-based insurgencies remained active during the conflict.
In the 1980s, rebel groups controlled most of the country's periphery. The two major organisations fighting against the Burma Socialist Programme Party-led government, were two umbrella groups, the pro-Chinese Communist Party of Burma (allied to local Kokang Chinese, Wa and Shan groups), based along the Chinese-Burmese border; and the pro-West National Democratic Force (made up of ethnic Mon, Karen, Karenni and Shan opposition groups), based along the Thai-Burmese border.[1]
By the late 1980s, the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) had weakened considerably, because of waning Chinese financial support and internal strife. During the 1988 Uprising, the CPB failed to seize the opportunity to invoke political change. A month later, the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), a council of military men, staged a coup d'etat. Consequently, ethnic Wa and Kokang armed forces led a mutiny against CPB, forming the United Wa State Party (UWSP) and the National Democratic Alliance Army (NDAA) respectively.[1] SLORC used this opportunity to arrange ceasefires with the armed rebel groups that had just mutinied, under a policy designed by Khin Nyunt, who was then the Chief of Military Intelligence.[1] The deal fell short of its nationwide billing, with seven of the 15 armed groups invited declining to sign because of disagreements over who the process should include, and ongoing distrust of Myanmar's semi-civilian government and its still-powerful military.[2]
National Reconciliation after 1988
Government troops heavily used four cuts counter-insurgency tactics in ethnic areas in the 1990s.[3] Most ethnic groups became armed after the first military coup in 1962 and successive military governments used four cuts counter insurgency policy in ethnic areas. This policy involved: the cut off communications among rebel armed groups as well as local people; the cut off of information among people; the cut off of trade route in designated territories; searches and the destruction of any possible supplies to cut off these areas. [4] On the other hand, the military government forced ethnic groups to sign ceasefire agreements with ethnic rebels groups, while government troops were trying to root out their main bases in 1990s. In meanwhile, ethnic minorities’ political parties which won seats in 1990 elections, and formed the second largest pro-democracy block after NLD, were severely oppressed in cities. By the end of the century, there were twenty armed opposition groups had cease fire agreements with governments.[5] However, the government did not hold political discussions with these groups or winning political parties. Therefore, some ethnic groups continued their armed struggle against the government. The ethnic populations suffered the most the result of long-standing hostilities with the central government. They have been treated as enemies of the state and second class citizens [3]
Agreements
The signed ceasefire agreements have been nothing more than temporary military truces to suspend fighting and preserve the status quo, allowing the rebel groups to retain administrative control of their territories. Weaker or splinter rebel groups typically forfeit their territories to the government.[1] Most agreements simply stipulated that the groups would be allowed to retain their arms and territories until the promulgation of a new constitution.
As part of the ceasefires, the government began the Border Area Development Programme in 1989, which became a ministry-level body in 1992, as the Ministry for the Progress of Border Areas and National Races and has built road infrastructure, schools, and hospitals in rebel-occupied territories.[6]
On 31 March 2015, Burmese President Thein Sein signed a nationwide ceasefire draft along with many ethnic leaders and government officials.[7]
Border Guard Forces
In April 2009, Lieutenant General Ye Myint led a government entourage to meet with Kokang, Shan and Wa insurgent groups, to discuss plans to create "collective security" formed by them and under the command of the Tatmadaw, which would eventually lead to the creation of the Border Guard Forces.[8] In 2009, four of the insurgent groups, the Democratic Karen Buddhist Army, the Kachin Defence Army (4th Brigade of the KIA), the New Democratic Army - Kachin (NDA-K), and the Pa-O National Organisation/Army (PNO/A), accepted the transition plan's terms and transformed into BGF groups.[9]
List of ceasefires
Since 1989, the Burmese government has signed the following ceasefire agreements[10][11]
| Organisation | Region | Effective dates | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
 Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA) | Kokang, Shan State | 21 March 1989 — 27 August 2009 | Establishment of MNDAA-governed Shan State Special Region 1 Special region later incorporated as Kokang SAZ (2010-2024) |
 United Wa State Army (UWSA) | Wa State, Shan State | 9 May 1989 — | Establishment of UWSA-governed Shan State Special Region 2 Special region later incorporated as Wa SAD (2010) |
 National Democratic Alliance Army (NDAA) | Eastern Shan State | 30 June 1989 — | Establishment of NDAA-governed Eastern Shan State Special Region 4 |
 Shan State Army (SSPP) | Special Region 3, Shan State | 2 September 1989 — | |
 New Democratic Army - Kachin (NDA-K) | Northeast Kachin State | 15 December 1989 — | Establishment of NDA-K-governed Kachin State Special Region 1 Transformed into Border Guard Force (BGF) November 2009 |
 Kachin Defense Army (KDA) | Special Region 5, Northern Shan State | 13 January 1991 — | Former 4th Brigade of the Kachin Independence Organisation KDA dissolved in December 2023 |
 Pa-O National Organisation (PNO) | Special Region 6, Southern Shan State | 11 April 1991 — | Special region incorporated as Pa'O SAZ (2010) |
 Palaung State Liberation Army (PSLA) | Special Region 7, Northern Shan State | 21 April 1991 — 2009 | |
| Kayan National Guard (KNG) | Special Region 1, Kayah State | 27 February 1992 — | Split from KNLP |
 Kachin Independence Organisation (KIO) | Special Region 2, Kachin State | 24 February 1994 — 9 June 2011[12] | |
 Karenni National People's Liberation Front (KNPLF) | Special Region 2, Kayah (Karenni) State | 9 May 1994 — 13 June 2023 | Transformed into BGF in November 2009 |
 Kayan New Land Party (KNLP) | Special Region 3, Kayah (Karenni) State | 26 July 1994 — | |
| Shan State Nationalities Peoples' Liberation Organisation (SSNPLO) | Southern Shan State | 9 October 1994 — | |
 New Mon State Party (NMSP) | Mon State | 29 June 1995 — | Breakaway faction annulled ceasefire in February 2024 |
 Democratic Karen Buddhist Army (DKBA)/Karen National Army (KNA) | Karen State | December 1995 — | Transformed into BGF August 2009 Reformed as KNA in January 2024 |
| Mongko Region Defence Army (MRDA) | Shan State | August 1995 —November 2000 | |
| Shan State National Army (SSNA) | Shan State | 1995 — May 2005 | SSNA dissolved by May 2005 |
| Karenni National Defence Army (KNDA) | Karen State | 1996 — | Split from KNPP |
| Karen Peace Force (KPF) | Karen State | 1997 — | Former 16th Battalion of the Karen National Union Transformed into BGF August 2009 (alongside DKBA) |
 Communist Party of Burma (Arakan Province)(CPB) | Rakhine State | 1997 — | |
| Mon Mergui Army (MMA) | Mon State | 1997 — | Split from New Mon State Party |
| KNU Special Region Group Toungoo (KNU) | Bago Division | 1997 — | |
 Karenni National Progressive Party (KNPP) | Kayah State | 2005 — 2005 | Ceasefire broke down within 3 months |
| Shan State Army - South (SSA-South) 758th Brigade | Shan State | 2006 — | Split from RCSS/SSA |
| KNU/KNLA Peace Council (KNU/KNLA PC) | Karen State | 2007 — | Former 7th Battalion of the Karen National Union |
| Democratic Karen Buddhist Army (DKBA) 3rd Brigade | Karen State | 3 November 2011[13] — | Fighting resumed on 19 February 2012.[14] |
| Klo Htoo Baw Battalion | Karen State | 5 November 2011[15] — | |
 Chin National Front Karen National Union Shan State Army – South | - | 19 November 2011[16] — | Informal ceasefire agreement; Despite a ceasefire agreement in place, fighting is still occurring between the Tatmadaw and SSA-South rebel troops, as of March 2012.[17] |
| Chin National Front (CNF) | Chin State | 8 January 2012[18] — | |
| Karen National Union (KNU)[19] | Karen State | 7 February 2012[20] — | |
| Restoration Council of Shan State (RCSS) | Shan State | 17 January 2012[21] — | Political arm of Shan State Army |
| Shan State Progressive Party (SSPP) | Shan State | 28 January 2012[22] — | Political arm of the Shan State Army |
| New Mon State Party (NMSP) | Mon State | 31 January 2012[23] — | |
| Karenni National Progressive Party (KNPP) | Kayah State | 6 March 2012[24] — 21 May 2021 | |
 ABSDF Arakan Liberation Party Chin National Front DKBA-5 Karen National UnionKNU/KNLA Peace Council  Lahu Democratic Union New Mon State Party Pa-O National Liberation Army Restoration Council of Shan State | Nationwide | 15 October 2015 — | Known as the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement Annulled by ABSDF, CNF, KNU, and factions of the NMSP and PNLA after the 2021 coup |
| Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army Ta'ang National Liberation Army | Northern Shan State | 12 January 2024 — 24 June 2024 | Known as Haigeng Ceasefire Ended Operation 1027 Phase 1 |
| Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army | Kokang | 19 January 2025 — | MNDAA relinquishes control of Lashio in April 2025 |
| Ta'ang National Liberation Army | Northern Shan State | 29 October 2025 — | TNLA agrees to relinquish control of Mogok and Momeik |