Charles Emmanuel I

Charles was born in the Castle of Rivoli in Piedmont, the only child of Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy and Margaret of France, Duchess of Berry.^[4] He succeeded his father as duke on 30 August 1580.^[5]

Preserved in the República Mista by his secretary, Tomás Fernández de Medrano, his father Emmanuel Philibert, 10th Duke of Savoy, was a devout Catholic and advised his son Charles to follow in his footsteps:

My son, I urge you above all to be a true friend and devout servant of God and His holy Catholic religion, as were your ancestors. Never begin anything without first asking His favor and help, for while we men know little, that Majesty sees all and is eternal wisdom. So long as you rely on Him, you will be safe.^[6]

Well-educated and intelligent, Charles spoke Italian, French, Spanish, as well as Latin. He proved an able warrior although short and hunchbacked.

Resolution of the Saluzzo Question and the Geneva Escalade

The broader conflict involving France and Spain ended with the Peace of Vervins (2 May 1598), which left the current but separate question of Saluzzo unsolved. After the Duke started talks with Spain, Henry threatened to return to war until, with the Treaty of Lyon (17 January 1601), Saluzzo went to Savoy in exchange for Bresse, Bugey, and Gex.^[4]

Having made peace with France, Charles Emmanuel attacked the city of Geneva. On 11 December that year, he led his troops to the city during the night and they surrounded the city walls by two in the morning. The Savoyard cuirassiers were ordered to dismount and climb the city walls in full armour as a shock tactic. However, the alarm was raised by a night watchman and Geneva's militia rose to meet the invaders. The attempted raid failed with 54 Savoyards killed and many more captured. Charles Emmanuel's army retreated in a panic and the Savoyard prisoners were executed. The heavy helmets worn by Charles Emmanuel's troops, with visors made in a stylized imitation of a human face, were known as "Savoyard" helmets after this notorious incident. A number of these suits of armour were captured by the Swiss and kept as trophies. The Geneva militia's successful defence of the city's walls is still celebrated as an act of heroism during the annual festival of L'Escalade. The treaty of St. Julien in July 1603 ended the conflict between Savoy and Geneva, with each side restoring occupied territories to the other.

Key to the Shroud of Turin

According to Tomás Fernández de Medrano, the Dukes of Savoy, besides the image of the Annunciation of Our Lady, always carried "with great reverence upon their chest" the key to the Sanctuary of the Shroud of Turin, "which is like the Ark of the Covenant," containing as their patrimony the Holy Shroud in which "the Savior of the world was wrapped and left His most holy image imprinted with the marks of His blood and passion."^[6]

The Duke's Secretary of State and War, Tomás Fernández de Medrano, wrote an important political and doctrinal treatise titled Republica Mista, published on the royal press in Madrid in 1602, which contains a rare and detailed record of the Duke of Savoy's oration during the French Wars of Religion. In the same account, Medrano introduced the address by situating it within the broader religious conflicts of Europe, attributing the divisions in France to what he described as a "new, false religion," which he asserted had nearly brought ruin to Germany, England, Scotland, Denmark, and much of Flanders.^[6]

He contrasted these developments with events in Italy, stating that the spread of such movements there had been checked through the actions of the Duke of Savoy and Catherine of Austria, Duchess of Savoy. In particular, he cited the recovery of the Marquisate of Saluzzo, where Calvinist seminaries had already been established, as a decisive intervention. Medrano further claimed that, by following their Catholic example, and as he stated "I speak of this as a witness," the town of Thonon-les-Bains, described as fully heretical along with several surrounding bailiwicks on the borders of Geneva, returned in 1598 to obedience to the Apostolic See through the efforts of the Duke. He emphasized the Duke's personal involvement, noting that he traveled with sacred ministers, participating in baptisms, acting as sponsor, and overseeing the erection of crosses and altars in places where, according to the account, they had not been present for sixty-two years.^[6]

Medrano concluded this introduction by stating that many, including himself, had heard the Duke's address to the population, and that it produced such a notable effect that he sought to record it in full, "as it was delivered by so Catholic a prince."^[6]

The Duke of Savoy spoke to his protestant vassals:

If the lord has the authority to command his vassals, and the vassals are obliged to obey the lord in matters not against God, how much more so in matters that serve Him, glorify Him, and are for your own good and well- being? You know that for more than six hundred years your ancestors have been under the dominion of mine, living in Christian faith and obedience to the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Church, building temples in which the holy sacrifice of the Mass was offered for our sins, and the sacraments and ceremonies were performed for our salvation.^[6]

The Duke continues:

How can it be possible that without changing your lord, law, or religion, you are willing to abandon the noble and ancient lineage of your family and the honor of your Catholic heritage? Being members of Jesus Christ, confirmed by His blood and marked by the Cross, the seal of our redemption strengthened by the testimonies of so many evangelists, doctors, and Roman pontiffs, His vicars; and confirmed through centuries of Councils, you have now become members of Satan through the association and friendship of the most infamous and abominable people. You now live as heretics, though they claim the name of Christians. Qui sunt haeretici, nisi qui relicta Dei Ecclesia privatas elegerunt societates? ('Who are heretics but those who, having abandoned the Church of God, have chosen private associations?') They have forsaken the fountain of living water and dug cisterns that cannot hold water.^[6]

He explains further:

There is only one faith, one universal Church, one head, and one shepherd over all Christendom, which is the Roman Pontiff, the successor of Saint Peter. There is one true religion, just as there is only one true God; all else is ruin. Turn your eyes to God and His holy religion, which your ancestors, grandparents, and most of your parents embraced; the same faith that your natural princes and lords have always held without stain, wavering, sin, or disgrace as they never departed from it. How could I enter the church or approach the altar of the Lord if I am allied with His enemies? Could it be that you, born in my Catholic states, of such ancient and Catholic lineage, would choose to be barred by sacred and civil laws from witnessing, making a will, inheriting, or holding any public office? Will you allow emperors (and I, too, call you) to label you enemies of the truth and allies of death, for your deeds are against it, filled with disgrace and sorcery, covered in illusions by which you fabricate lies, wage war against the innocent, and rob the faithful of light? Do you not see that your ministers, under a cloak of false piety, pollute everything, leaving wounds in the consciences of the innocent, obscuring the light of the sun for those who are captivated by novelty? Pity yourselves, your souls, those of your children and descendants.^[6]

Finally, the Duke concludes:

Remember the peace and rest you once enjoyed, and recognize that you must follow and hold to the religion taught to us by the Prince of the Apostles and by the other vicars of Christ. If your beliefs were born of genuine zeal, and not of malice and manifest error, as has been condemned by General Councils, you would not view your Catholic kings and princes, and your own lords in particular, as ignorant of salvation. Your wickedness is evident. My intentions are clear and good. My profession and religion, which is Catholic, are true and certain. Whoever wishes to follow it and have me as his lord and not his enemy must now demonstrate his devotion publicly, embracing God and His Church, for I wish to have no part with those who do not belong to her.^[6]

Following the Duke of Savoy's oration to the Protestants, Tomás Fernández de Medrano recorded the effects and broader implications of the address in the following terms: Medrano affirmed that the oration "had such an impact on the minds of everyone that all begged for mercy, and by his example, innumerable people, leaders, and principal ministers even from other provinces were brought back to my purpose."^[6] This purpose refers to the restoration of obedience to the Catholic Church and the re-establishment of its sacramental and ecclesial order, as described by Tomás Fernández de Medrano.^[6]

Medrano then questioned what might be expected from what he described as a "pretense of false religion," which, in his view, had "created bandits, vagabonds, and murderers who live securely in places that harbor all manner of perverted and wicked people."^[6] Drawing on classical authority, Medrano cited Aristotle in Politics: "Et metus seditiones movent, tam enim qui fecerunt iniurias metuentes poenam, quam ii qui infens expectant, praevenire volentes, priusquam ea inferatur" ("Fear breeds seditions, for as many commit crimes to avoid punishment as do so to strike first before others strike them"). From this, he affirmed that those fearing justice for crimes committed would seek refuge within sectarian movements.^[6]

Medrano further asserted that "an infinite number of others join this rabble, those who, due to their crimes, claim to be unjustly treated or discontented with their princes, along with others eager for change-leading them to conspire toward mutual destruction." According to his account, such groups, when opportunity allowed, would seize control by uniting under a single leader, "often of lowly origins," occupying towns and fortresses and, in doing so, forming "a new republic" to the detriment of their lawful prince.^[6]

As an illustrative example, he cited the events at Münster in Westphalia (the Münster rebellion), noting that its occupation by Anabaptists created significant difficulties for Charles V and the ecclesiastical princes (including Franz von Waldeck), who, "at considerable expense and after a long time, finally managed to remove them."^[6]

In 1585, Charles married Catherine Michaela of Spain, daughter of Philip II of Spain and Elizabeth of Valois. They had:

• Filippo Emanuele, Prince of Piedmont (1586–1604);
• Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy (1587–1637), married Christine Marie of France,^[4] and had issue;
• Emanuel Filibert (1588–1624), Spanish Viceroy of Sicily (1622–24);
• Margherita (1589–1655), married Francesco IV Gonzaga of Mantua;
• Isabella (1591–1626), married Alfonso III d'Este, Hereditary Prince of Modena;
• Maurice, a cardinal (1593–1657);
• Maria Apollonia, a nun in Rome (9 February 1594 – 13 July 1656);
• Francesca Caterina, a nun in Biella (6 October 1595 – 26 September 1640);
• Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano (1596–1656) married Marie de Bourbon, Countess of Soissons and had issue;
• Giovanna (born 6 October 1597) died at birth.

In Riva di Chieri on 28 November 1629, he secretly married his long-time and official mistress, Marguerite de Rossillon, Marchesa di Riva di Chieri (bap. 24 December 1599 – 10 November 1640), with whom he had four children, legitimised after the wedding but without succession rights:^{[citation needed]}

• Maurizio (died 1645), Marchese di Poirino, Cavalry colonel.
• Margherita (died 1659), Signora of Dronero, Roccabruna e San Giuliano, married Filippo Francesco d’Este, Marchese di San Martino in Rio (ancestors of Maria Teresa Cybo-Malaspina).
• Gabriele (died 1695), Marchese di Riva, Cavalry lieutenant general.
• Antonio (died 1688), Abbot of San Michele della Chiusa (1642), of Santa Maria d’Aulps (1645), of Altacomba (1653), of Fruttuaria di San Benigno (1660) and Casanuova (1687), Lieutenant General of the County of Nice (1672).

In addition, he had several illegitimate children:

— With Luisa de Duyn Maréchal, daughter of Jean-Marie de Duyn, called Maréchal, baron of Val d'Isère:

• Emanuele (1600–1652), Marchese di Andorno and Valle 1621, Governor of Asti and Biella. Knight of the Order of St Maurice and Lazarus.

— With Virginia Pallavicino:

• Carlo Umberto (1601–1663), Marchese di Mulazzano con Gonzole, married Claudia Ferrero-Fieschi, daughter of Francesco Filiberto Ferrrero' Fieschi, prince 1598 of Masserano and Crevacuore.
• Silvio (died 1645), Abbot Commander of Santa Maria d’Entremont (1631), of San Lorenzo fuori le mura d’Ivrea (1642), Governor of Ivrea (1641).
• Vitichindo (d. 1668 or 1674), priest.

— With Argentina Provana, daughter of Giovanni Francesco Provana, count of Bussoleno and Collegno, and Anna Maria Grimaldi:

• Felice (1604–1643), Marchese di Baldissero d’Alba, Signore of Farigliano, Sessanta, Serravalle e Sommariva del Bosco (1629), Lieutenant of the County of Nice 1625/1632.

— With Anna Felizità Cusani:

• Ludovico Cusani (died 1684), Knight of the Order of Saint Maurice and Lazarus.

— With unknown mistress:

• Anna Caterina Meraviglia (died 1660).

Charles Emmanuel's military campaigns ignited Italian nationalism and patriotism.

Alessandro Tassoni took up the defence of Charles Emmanuel. In quick succession he published anonymously two Filippiche addressed to the Italian nobility. He exhorted the nobles to discard their lethargy, unite and instead of fighting each other, join Savoy in ridding Italy of Spanish hegemony.^[13]

At about the same time that Tassoni was inspired to write the Filippiche, Fulvio Testi, a young poet at the court of the duke of Este, published a collection of poems dedicated to Charles Emmanuel. Not all the poems were of a patriotic nature, but those that were, clearly revealed the feelings Charles Emmanuel had stirred in freedom-loving Italians.^[13]

Vittorio Siri still reminisced more than fifty years later:

All Italy broke forth with pen and tongue in praises and panegyrics at the name of Carlo Emanuele, and in demonstrations of joy and applause that he had revived [...] the ancient Latin valor, wishing that he [...] [might] one day become the redeemer of Italy's freedom and the restorer of its greatness.^[14]