Chera Perumals of Kerala

An earlier version of conventional Kerala historiography held the belief that the medieval Chera state in Kerala was a highly centralized imperial monarchy (following a "unitary or imperial state model", emphasizing centralized administration).^[2][13][15] The state was also erroneously referred to as the "Second/Later Chera Empire" or the "Kulasekhara Empire".^[13]

However, critical research in the late 1960s and early 1970s offered a major corrective to these views ^[2][13] Accusing early Kerala historians of inventing a "Second Chera Empire" to rival the glories of the imperial Cholas (in the Tamil country), scholars rejected the theory of a Chera "empire" and instead proposed the existence of a traditional (medieval) monarchy in Kerala (Narayanan, 1972).^[16][15] It was also found that not all Chera kings bore the specific abhisekanama "Kulasekhara", and therefore the dynasty cannot accurately be referred to as the "Kulasekhara dynasty".^[15]

At the other end of the spectrum, suggestions emerged in the early 2000s proposing that the Chera king at Mahodayapuram only held "ritual sovereignty", while actual political power rested with "a bold and visible Brahmin oligarchy" (Narayanan, 2002).^[2][17] This perspective describes "a fragmented array of local chiefdoms... held in check by a loose Tamil hegemony".^[16]

"The Cera kingdom was not a strong, absolute monarchy by any means, but rather a confederation of lords and powerful Brahmin communities under the mantle of the Perumal...Therefore, the portrayal of the post Cera period as a time of major political decentralization attributes a false centrality to the Cera period itself..."

According to this third model, the Chera ruler's sovereign power was largely confined to the capital, Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur.^[2] His kingship was purely "ritual" and remained nominal compared to the political and military power that local chieftains (the Udaiyavar) in distant northern and southern Kerala. Nambudiri-Brahmins throughout Kerala also held significant authority in social and religious matters ("ritual sovereignty combined with a bold and visible Brahmin oligarchy").^[2][17]

The medieval Chera rulers of Kerala, based at the port of Mahodayapuram (identified with present-day Kodungallur) on the Malabar Coast, were perhaps descendants of the ancient Cheras who flourished in pre-Pallava (early historic) south India.^[7] The lineage name "Chera" notably tied the family to the high prestige of the Sangam Literature.^[21] Early Tamil poems provide clear indications that different branches of the Chera family simultaneously managed various centers of power or capitals in ancient Kerala and western Tamil Nadu — Muchiri-Vanchi, located in central Kerala at the mouth of the Periyar River, being one of them.^[22]

It is speculated that Kerala's Chera rulers faced little economic pressure for territorial conquest, as the region was naturally rich and derived substantial income from maritime trade with the Middle East.^[23] The Chera Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly and hostile relations with the neighboring Cholas and the Pandyas.^[24] Sthanu Ravi, earliest recorded Chera ruler, notably assisted the Cholas in conquering the western Tamil country (late 9th century CE).^[25][26] The Chera kingdom was attacked and eventually forced into submission by the Cholas in c. early 11th century CE, perhaps primarily to break its near-monopoly on Indian Ocean spice trade with the Middle East.^[24]

"A [Chola] naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe."

Regional rulers or chieftains, known as "nadu-udaiyavar " or "nadu-vazhumavar", wielded significant political and military power in the Chera state.^[15][2] Chiefdoms in Kerala under Chera rule, referred to as "nadus", were roughly comparable to the "rashtra" under the Rashtrakutas and "padi" under the Cholas.^[15] These chieftains likely exercised considerable militaristic authority within their territories, including over Nambudiri-Brahmin temples and Brahmin settlements within their nadu.^[15] However, the udaiyavar chieftains were obligated to serve the Chera Perumal in battles — most notably against the Cholas — and the chiefdoms perhaps functioned as revenue collection units of the Chera kingdom.^[15][2] It is recorded that the "Koyil Adhikarikal" or "Al Koyil", the Chera royal representative in a chiefdom, collected regular dues (attaikkol and arantai) from the chiefdoms on behalf of the Chera Perumal at Kodungallur.^[15]

The Chera state in Kerala was subjugated during the reign of the Chola emperor Rajaraja I. However, it was during the reign of Rajendra I that the Chola authority was firmly established, marked by outright Chola control over Kerala.^[28] Kerala was subsequently separated from the Chola "patrimony", resulting in the loss of central administrative control, and for a time was held as an appanage by junior members of the Chola dynasty.^[29] This system of appanage (royal devolution) proved short-lived and was abandoned during the reign of Kulottunga.^[30]

The Bhakti saints Cheraman Perumal the Nayanar and Kulasekhara the Alvar are generally identified with some of the earliest recorded Chera Perumal kings of Kerala.^[6][2][3] Shankara, the founder of the advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, is also traditionally associated with 8th-century Kerala.^[2] A vibrant culture flourished in the medieval Chera kingdom, founded on shared commercial interests and marked by cultural hybridity and confluence.^[31] Copper-plate charters of the Chera Perumals notably record grants made to Christian and Jewish traders from the Middle East.^[23] The West Asian Muslims had also established themselves as merchants in the kingdom.^[32] Renowned merchant guilds such as manigramam and anjuvannam were active in the Chera kingdom.^[33] The earliest attestation of Malayalam language (as an inscriptional variety) is also tentatively dated to the Chera Perumal period or shortly thereafter in Kerala.^[33] The temple architecture style known as "Kerala-Dravida" is likewise evident from the 11th century CE onward.^[33]

In the early 12th century, the medieval Chera kingdom of Kerala dissolved into several local powers.^[34] Among other factors, the gradual transformation of land relations played a crucial role in the collapse of the Chera state.^[14] Over time, the Chera state had gradually lost its role as the primary regulator of land ownership and transactions.^[14] In southern Kerala, the medieval Chera dynasty was succeeded by the rulers of Venad (centered on the port of Kollam), whose kings, tracing their descent from the Cheras, were variously known as the Cheras or the "Kulasekhara dynasty".^[23][35] In other parts of Kerala, the chieftains of Kolathunad, and the future rulers of Kozhikode (Calicut) and Kochi (Cochin) emerged as the successors to the Chera Perumals.^[2]

The medieval Chera state in Kerala featured a range of administrative organs that reflected its structure. The "Koyil Adhikarikal", or "Al or Ala Koyil", was a Chera royal prince appointed to individual chiefdoms, responsible for collecting regular dues — such as the attaikkol and arantai — on behalf of the Chera Perumal at Mahodayapuram.^[15] The managers of the four prominent Nambudiri-Brahmin temples around Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur, collectively known as the "Nalu Thali", likely functioned as the Chera Perumal's permanent council or ministers.^[36][37]

The Ayiram ("The Thousand") served as the Chera Perumal's personal guard, composed of "a thousand Nair warriors" who acted as the king’s "Companions of Honour" and were also tasked with managing and protecting the Kodungallur Bhagavathy Temple.^[2][6] The Padai-nayakar (or nayakan or Padai-nair) was the commander of the armed militia, either for the Chera kingdom as a whole or for individual chiefdoms.^[36]

Each chiefdom maintained its own militia known as The Hundred (Nutruvar), an armed contingent whose size was often indicated by the number of households within the nadu that could contribute fighters.^[15] The Nizhal ("The Shadow") formed the personal protection guard of the udaiyavar chiefs, serving them as loyal "Companions of Honour".^[15] Supporting the chiefs further was the "Prakrithi", a body of non-Brahmin notables who assisted in administration. Lastly, the "Adhikarar" were temple or royal functionaries responsible for local administration, including the collection of dues and arbitration of disputes.^[15]

The structure of the Chera kingdom incorporated several local chieftains.^[38] Through the analysis of medieval Kerala inscriptions from the Chera Perumal period, scholars have substantiated the existence of several chieftaincies or chiefdoms (the "nadus"). From north to south, they are as follows: Kolla-desam [or Kolathu-nadu?^[39]] or Mushika country, Purakizha-nadu, Kurumporai-nadu, Erala-nadu, Valluva-nadu,^[40] Kizhmalai-nadu (meaning "Eastern Hill Country"^[41]), Vempala-nadu, Munji-nadu, Nanruzhai-nadu,^[40] and Venadu or Kupaka country (also known by the name of its major port, Kollam^[39]).^[42] Kolathu-nadu (in northern Kerala) came under the influence of the Chera Perumals only during the 11th century CE, while Venadu (in southern Kerala) was likely developed under their influence in the early 9th century CE.^[40][42]

The Chera Perumal held outright authority over the region extending from the Palakkad Gap to Vembanad Lake, including the port of Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur in the Periyar Valley.^[40] Within this territory, the nadus were constituted as militaristic or revenue units, with the udayaivars being chosen from among members of martial families serving the Chera king.^[40]

• Jewish copper plates of Cochin (early 11th century CE)
• Quilon Syrian copper plates (9th century CE)