Coastal fortifications of New Zealand
New Zealand coastal fortifications
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Coastal fortifications were constructed in New Zealand in two main waves: around 1885 as a response to fears of an attack by Russia, and in World War II due to fears of invasion by the Japanese.
The fortifications were built from British designs adapted to New Zealand conditions. They typically included gun emplacements, pill boxes, fire control or observation posts, camouflage strategies, underground bunkers, sometimes with interconnected tunnels, containing magazines, supply and plotting rooms and protected engine rooms supplying power to the gun turrets and searchlights. There were also kitchens, barracks, and officer and NCO quarters.[1]
The "Russian Scare" forts of 1885
In the 1870s New Zealand was a young self-governing colony of Britain. It had developed no coastal defences of any consequence and was becoming increasingly sensitive to how vulnerable its harbours were to attack by a hostile power or opportunistic raider. Fears of invasion by the expanding Russian Empire were common, especially due to the founding of Russia's Pacific port at Vladivostok.[2]
Fears intensified after a hoax article was run in the Daily Southern Cross on 18 February 1873.[2] The article proclaimed that war had been declared between England and Russia,[3] and that a fictional Russian naval cruiser, the Kaskowiski, had attacked Auckland.[2][4]
[The Kaskowiski] – whose very name should have made sober readers suspicious – had allegedly entered Auckland Harbour on the previous Saturday night and proceeded to capture a British ship, along with the city's arms and ammunition supply, and hold a number of leading citizens for ransom. The 954-man Russian vessel obviously meant business, with a dozen 30-ton guns as well as a remarkably new advance in warfare, a paralysing and deadly "water-gas" that could be injected into enemy ships from a great distance.[3]
The Southern Cross article created panic and the Government commissioned its first reports on the colony's defences. It was now clearly understood that Britain would protect its territories and vital shipping routes, but the defence of individual ports was the responsibility of each self-governing colony. Then Russia declared war on Turkey in 1877 producing another "scare".
An 1884 report by Sir William Jervois, the Governor of New Zealand, included recommendations for military forts to be constructed at the country's four main ports at Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton and Port Chalmers.[2] These coastal artillery fortifications or land batteries were to be based on British designs. Heavy artillery pieces and ammunition was ordered from Britain. By 1885, work started in earnest on the construction of what eventually became seventeen forts, further encouraged by yet another Russian scare.[3]
Artillery
In 1885 the New Zealand Government bought ten Armstrong BL 8-inch and thirteen Armstrong BL 6-inch guns on disappearing carriages. The disappearing gun was the very latest in military technology in the 1880s. It was "disappearing" because as it fired, the recoil pushed the gun back underground where it could be reloaded under cover. The total costs of this artillery plus the costs of installation including land, emplacements, magazines and barracks was about £160,000.[5]
Following the "second Russian scare" a number of additional RML 7 in (180 mm) and 64 lb (29 kg) guns were also installed[6]
| Artillery circa 1890 | Number | Range | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Armstrong BL 8 in (200 mm) Mk VII disappearing guns | 10 | 6.4 km (4 mi) | Weighed 13.5 tons and fired a 82 kg (180 lb) shell. |
| Armstrong BL 6 in (150 mm) disappearing guns | 13 | 4.8 km (3 mi) | Weighed 5 tons and fired a 45 kg (100 lb) shell. |
| RML 7 in (180 mm) 7 ton guns | 11 | Weighed 7 tons. | |
| RML 64 lb (29 kg) Mk 3 guns | 9 | 3.2 km (2 mi) | Weighed 64 cwt |
The forts
| Fort | Harbour | Way- point |
Ordnance circa 1890 |
Range | Dates | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| North Head | Auckland | 36°49′39″S 174°48′44″E | 1 × BL 8 in (200 mm) gun RML 7 in guns 64 lb (29 kg) guns |
1870 | At Devonport, divided into three sub-forts: | |
| Bastion Point | Auckland | 36°50′43″S 174°49′29″E | 2 × BL 6 in (150 mm) guns | 1885– | In Mission Bay. Not completed. | |
| Fort Resolution | Auckland | 36.84966°S 174.79183°E | 2 × BL 6 in (150 mm) guns | 1885 | In Parnell. | |
| Fort Takapuna | Auckland | 36°48′55″S 174°48′24″E | 2 × BL 6 in (150 mm) guns | 1886– | [10][11][12][13] | |
| Fort Victoria | Auckland | 36.82661°S 174.79881°E | 1 × BL 8 in (200 mm) gun | 1885 | On Mount Victoria, Devonport. The gun fired only once because of complaints from residents whose windows were broken.[14] | |
| Fort Ballance | Wellington | 41°17′41″S 174°50′02″E | 2 × 7" RML guns 1 × 6" BLHP gun 2 × QF 6 lb (2.7 kg) Nordenfelt guns |
1885 | (1885–1886) Point Gordon. At Miramar. Wellington's primary military fort until 1911 when Fort Dorset opened.[15] | |
| Fort Gordon | Wellington | 41°17′41″S 174°50′02″E | 1 × 8" BLHP gun | 1895-1924 | Point Gordon | |
| Fort Buckley | Wellington | 41°15′38″S 174°47′17″E | 2 × 64 lb (29 kg) RML guns | 3.2 km (2 mi) | At Kaiwharawhara.[16][17][18] | |
| Point Haswell Battery | Wellington | 41.28506°S 174.826°E | 1 × BL 8 in (200 mm) gun | 1889 | At Miramar. | |
| Kau Point Battery | Wellington | 41.28978°S 174.83177°E | 1 × BL 8 in (200 mm) gun | 1891-1922 | At Miramar. | |
| Fort Kelburne | Wellington | 41.24623°S 174.81471°E | 2 × BL 8 in (200 mm) guns | 1885 | At Ngauranga. Since been demolished due to construction of the Wellington Urban Motorway.[19] | |
| Battery Point | Lyttelton | 43°36′10″S 172°44′25″E | 2 × 7 in RML guns 1 × QF 6 2.7 kg (6 lb) Nordenfelt guns |
1885 | On the north side of Lyttelton Harbour, 4.8 km (3 mi) from mouth.[20][21] | |
| Fort Jervois | Lyttelton | 43°37′11″S 172°45′15″E | 2 × 8 in (200 mm) BL guns 2 × 6 in (150 mm) BL guns |
1886 | On Ripapa Island on the south side of Lyttelton Harbour.[22] Fort Jervois is an internationally rare 1880s “Russian Invasion Scare” structure, which has retained a high level of authenticity of both structure and hardware (6” and 8” disappearing guns). It is one of only five examples of this type of fortification in the world. The Island has been managed by the Department of Conservation since 1990.[23] | |
| Spur Point Battery | Lyttelton | 43.60435°S 172.73405°E | 1 × 64 lb (29 kg) RML gun | 1885 | Site of battery, quarried away as part of land reclamation during the 1970s to build Cashin Quay.[24] | |
| Lawyers Head Battery | Port Chalmers | 45°54′32″S 170°32′06″E | 1885 | Eastern Ocean Beach, Dunedin South. | ||
| Ocean Beach Battery | Port Chalmers | 45.90686°S 170.50702°E | 1886 | |||
| St Clair Battery | Port Chalmers | 45.9142°S 170.48752°E | 1885 | On a spur of Forbury Hill above Second Beach, Dunedin. No remnants remain; the area was cleared and subdivided for residential housing. | ||
| Fort Taiaroa | Port Chalmers | 45°46′26″S 170°43′40″E | 1 × BL 6 in (150 mm) gun | 1885 | Otago Harbour. This Armstrong Disappearing Gun was installed in May 1889 and was recommissioned during World War II. It is the only one of its kind working and is still in its original gun pit.[25][26] |
World War II coastal fortifications
The second main wave of building coastal fortifications occurred during World War II. This was mainly a response to a perceived threat of invasion by the Japanese after the attack on Pearl Harbor. From 1942 until 1944, when the threat receded, 42 coastal artillery fortifications or land batteries were either developed using historical fortifications or were built from scratch. The fortifications were built from British designs adapted to New Zealand conditions. Radar was installed which allowed long range shooting at night and replaced the traditional fortress system of range finding.[1]
Ordnance
The fortifications were equipped with both old and new ordnance, mostly British. Some World War I ordnance was requisitioned from museums and recommissioned.[citation needed]
| Ordnance used during World War II | Number | Range | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 9.2-inch guns | 6 | 29 km (18 mi) | |
| BL 6 inch Mk 24 guns | 3 | 23 km (14 mi) | |
| BL 6 in (150 mm) Mk 21 guns | 6 | 21 km (13 mi) | |
| 6 in (150 mm) Mark 7 guns | 32 | 19 km (12 mi) | |
| 6 in (150 mm) EOC gun | 2 | 9.7 km (6 mi) | Elswick Ordnance Company |
| 5"/51 caliber guns[27] (USA naval guns) | 6 | 16 km (10 mi) | 51 calibre MkVII 1912 |
| 4.7 in (120 mm) guns | 1 | 9.7 km (6 mi) | |
| 4 in (100 mm) Mark 7 guns | 11 | 14 km (9 mi) | |
| 155 mm guns | 2 | 14 km (9 mi) | |
| 75 mm guns | 2 | ||
| QF 12 lb (5.4 kg) guns | 8 | 13 km (8 mi) | |
| QF 6 lb (2.7 kg) guns | 12 | 8.0 km (5 mi) | |
| Bofors 40 mm guns | 48 | 6.4 km (4 mi) | |
| CASLs | 48 | Coastal Artillery Searchlight |
The fortifications
The fortifications were administered by the Royal New Zealand Artillery, which grouped them into four areas. Each area was under the command of a heavy artillery regiment. Within each regiment the fortifications were grouped into batteries.[citation needed]
| Also used (highlighted below in yellow) were seven of the now historic Russian scare fortifications |
Upper North Island
Under the command of the 9th Heavy/Coast Regiment.[28][29]
| Battery | Name | Way- point |
World War II Ordnance |
Range |
Dates | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 60 | Motutapu Island | 36°45′03″S 174°55′09″E | 3 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 21 guns 2 × CASLs |
21 km (13 mi) | 1936 -1945 |
Consisted of a battery, camp, gun emplacement, pill boxes and US naval magazines. Its remains are administered by DOC.[30] |
| 61 RHQ |
North Head [Russian scare] |
36°49′39″S 174°48′44″E | 2 × 4 in (100 mm) Mk 7 guns 2 × 12 lb (5.4 kg) guns 4 × 6 lb (2.7 kg) H&N 6 × CASLs |
14 km (9 mi) | 1870 -1957 |
Part of Auckland's coastal defence system from the Russian scare in 1885 to World War I. By World War II, with ships' guns able to fire long distances, the old fort was too close to the city it was meant to defend. New batteries were built at Motutapu, Castor Bay, Whangaparaoa and Waiheke Island and North Head became the centre of administration.[31] A complex of tunnels, guns, searchlights and other fortifications remain and it is now a historic reserve managed by the Department of Conservation.[7][8] |
| 61 | Bastion Point [Russian scare] |
36°50′43″S 174°49′29″E | 2 × 12 lb (5.4 kg) gun Twin 6 lb (2.7 kg) guns 3 × CASLs |
13 km (8 mi) | 1885– | Located in Mission Bay. The fortifications were buried in the 1940s when the Michael Joseph Savage memorial was built, and effectively forgotten. The underlying tunnels were later rediscovered. |
| 61 | Great Barrier Island | 36.17605°S 175.35273°E | 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 gun 4 in (100 mm) Mk 7 gun 4 × 40 mm Bofors |
19 km (12 mi) | Located between Fitzroy and Okiwi Bay[32] | |
| 61 | Manukau | 37.05816°S 174.53774°E | 1 × 4.7 in (120 mm) gun | 9.7 km (6 mi) | 1942 | Built by American Forces [unknown unit] at the end of Harvey Road, Manukau Heads, approximately 100 m north of lighthouse site, this open fronted fortification had one gun, and an observation post inland. Accommodation was at the end of Harvey Road, with only concrete pads remaining for some buildings. Due to the erosive nature of these compacted sandhills the gun emplacement was undermined and slipped down the cliffs in the early 1980s. According to local residents, the gun was only fired 6 times, cracking the concrete abutments. |
| 61 | Motuihe Island | 36°48′40″S 174°49′29″E | 2 × 4 in (100 mm) Mk 7 guns | 14 km (9 mi) | 1872– | During World War II (1941) the Motuihe buildings became HMNZS Tamaki naval base, a training establishment. Now in the care of the Department of Conservation.[33][34][35] |
| 62 | Fort Takapuna [Russian scare] |
36°48′55″S 174°48′24″E | 2 × 4 in (100 mm) Mk 7 guns 2 × CASLs |
14 km (9 mi) | 1886– | Also known as HMNZS Tamaki, and Narrow Neck. In 1963 the RNZN moved its New Entry Training School HMNZS Tamaki from Motuihe Island to the fort. The navy built a new Gunnery School and set up an Officer Training School. Previously officers had been sent overseas for training. Only the Officer and Trade Training schools remain. Has been under the care of the Department of Conservation since 2000.[10][11][12][13] |
| 63 | Castor Bay | 36°45′22″S 174°46′0″E | 2 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 guns 2 × CASLs |
19 km (12 mi) | 1942 -1944 |
 Notable for its camouflage strategies during World War II.[36][37][38] |
| 64 | Whanga- paraoa |
36°36′09″S 174°50′16″E | 2 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 guns 2 × CASLs |
19 km (12 mi) | SE tip of peninsula | |
| 163 | Whanga- paraoa |
36°36′09″S 174°50′17″E | 2 × 9.2 in (230 mm) guns | 29 km (18 mi) | SE tip of peninsula | |
| 164 | Stony Batter |
36°45′45″S 175°10′27″E | 2 × 9.2 in (230 mm) guns | 29 km (18 mi) | 1942– | Waiheke Island. Now in the care of the Department of Conservation.[39][40] |
| 68 | Moturoa Island | 35°13′07″S 174°11′21″E | 4 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 guns 8 × 40 mm Bofors |
19 km (12 mi) | Bay of Islands | |
| 68 | Whangaroa | 35°00′40″S 173°45′21″E | 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 gun | 19 km (12 mi) | South Head of harbour. | |
| 139 | Bream Head |
35°51′01″S 174°31′35″E | 5 in (130 mm) Mk 7 gun (USA) | 16 km (10 mi) | 1942 -1944 |
Entrance to Whangarei harbour. Remaining structures are the (Colchester) gun shelter, engine room, and observation post. The most significant feature is the spotting mural with compass bearings painted above the slit window in the observation post.[41][42] |
Lower North Island
Under the command of the 10th Heavy/Coast Regiment.[43]
| Battery | Name | Way- point |
World War II Ordnance |
Range | Dates | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 70 | Palmer Head | 41°20′14″S 174°49′01″E | 3 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 21 guns 4 × CASLs |
21 km (13 mi) | 1936 -1957 |
At the entrance to the Wellington Harbour. The abandoned gun pits were blown up in the late 1960s. The only remains are the underground plotting rooms, which are closed for safety reasons.[44] |
| 71 RHQ |
Fort Dorset | 41°19′33″S 174°50′14″E | 2 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 guns 2 × 4 in (100 mm) Mk 7guns 4 × 12 lb (5.4 kg) guns 7 × CASLs |
19 km (12 mi) | 1908 -1991 |
At the inner entrance to Wellington harbour. The fort was demolished in 1998.[45][46] |
| 72 | Fort Ballance [Russian scare] |
41°17′41″S 174°50′02″E | 2 × 4 in (100 mm) Mk 7guns Twin 6 lb (2.7 kg) guns 2 × 75 mm guns 6 × CASLs |
14 km (9 mi) | 1885– 1945 |
(1885–1886) Point Gordon
By Mount Crawford, Karaka Bays, Wellington's primary fort until 1911 when Fort Dorset opened, Fort Ballance was closed in 1945 but remnants remain.[15] |
| 73 | Fort Opau | 41°13′20″S 174°41′46″E | 2 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 guns | 19 km (12 mi) | 1942 -1944 |
On a high headland above Mākara, on Wellington's west coast, protecting Cook Strait.[47][48][49] The fort was built in 1941, and comprised two covered 6" gun emplacements, a battery operations post, and an observation post and a radar post, with a large barracks several hundred metres inland. |
| 165 | Wrights Hill Fortress | 41°17′46″S 174°44′21″E | 2 × 9.2 in (230 mm) guns | 29 km (18 mi) | 1942 1957 |
This British-designed fortress was similar to the 9.2 inch fortresses built at Whangaparaoa and Stoney Batter. 2,030 feet (620 metres) of interconnecting tunnels were dug. Two 185 hp diesel generators provided power to manoeuvre the guns. Each gun weighed 135 tons and could fire a 380-pound (172 kg) shell across Cook Strait or up to Plimmerton. The fortress was used for training purposes up to the mid-1950s. In early 1960 the guns were sold for scrap, ironically, to the Japanese. The Wrights Hill Fortress Restoration Society is restoring the coastal battery to its former state.[50][51] |
| 77 | Bluff Hill | 39°28′43″S 176°55′03″E | 2 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 guns 4 × 40 mm Bofors |
19 km (12 mi) | At Napier. Also a signal station during World War II,[52] although never a lighthouse,[53] despite being situated on Lighthouse Road. | |
| 77 | Titirangi (Kaiti Hill) | 38°42′03″S 178°03′56″E | 5 in (130 mm) Mk 7 gun (USA) | 16 km (10 mi) | Located at Gisborne. | |
| 78 | Moturoa | 39.06372°N 174.02887°E | 2 × 155 mm guns 4 × 40 mm Bofors |
14 km (9 mi) | At New Plymouth.[54] | |
| 140 | Languard Bluff | 39°57′30″S 175°01′20″E | 5 in (130 mm) Mk 7 gun (USA) | 16 km (10 mi) | At Wanganui.[55][56] |
Upper South Island
Under the command of the 11th Heavy/Coast Regiment.[28][29]
| Battery | Name | Way- point |
World War II Ordnance |
Range | Dates | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 80 RHQ |
Godley Head | 43°35′13″S 172°48′21″E | 3 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 24 guns 2 × CASLs |
23 km (14 mi) | 1939 -1963 |
At the northern entrance to Lyttelton Harbour, the last NZA to be decommissioned. It last fired a gun in 1959. In its heyday in World War II, it was staffed by over 400 men and women and was a self-contained community. It is ranked in the top ten New Zealand coastal defence heritage sites.[57] It is now under the care of the Department of Conservation and the Godley Head Heritage Trust.[58][59] |
| 81 | Battery Point [Russian scare] |
43°36′10″S 172°44′25″E | 2 × 4 in (100 mm) Mk 7guns Twin 2.7 kg (6 lb) guns 5 × CASLs |
14 km (9 mi) | 1886– | On the northern side of Lyttelton Harbour, 4.8 km (3 mi) from mouth.[20][21] |
| 81 | Fort Jervois [Russian scare] |
43°37′11″S 172°45′15″E | 6 in (150 mm) EOC gun | 9.7 km (6 mi) | 1886 | On Ripapa Island on the southern side of Lyttelton Harbour.[22] It is an internationally rare 1880s “Russian Invasion Scare” military defence structure, which has retained a high level of authenticity of both structure and hardware (6” and 8” disappearing guns). It is one of only five examples of this type of fortification in the world. The island has been managed by the Department of Conservation since 1990.[23] |
| Magazine Bay [Russian scare] |
43.61081°S 172.70488°E | ? | 1886 | Lyttelton, in conjunction with nearby torpedo boat base.[60] | ||
| 84 | Whekenui Battery | 41.20589°S 174.30439°E | 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 gun 12 × 40 mm Bofors |
19 km (12 mi) | Queen Charlotte Sound[61] | |
| 84 | Maraetai | 41°15′21″S 174°08′01″E | 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 gun | 19 km (12 mi) | In Tory Channel, Queen Charlotte Sound. | |
| 84 | Blumine Island | 41°09′30″S 174°14′11″E; 41°09′31″S 174°14′39″E | 2 × 6 in Mk 7 guns | 19 km (12 mi) | 1942 -1945 |
Guarding the northern entrance to Queen Charlotte Sound, the guns are positioned separately on the two northern points of Blumine Island. Associated with each emplacement are a magazine, observation post and accommodation camp.[62][63] |
| 84 | Post Office Point | 40.97112°S 173.99369°E | 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 gun | 19 km (12 mi) | In Pelorus Sound / Te Hoiere. | |
| 84 | Maud Island | 41°01′01″S 173°54′21″E | 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 gun | 19 km (12 mi) | At the entrance to Pelorus Sound / Te Hoiere. Under the care of the Department of Conservation.[64][65] | |
| 84 | Port Hills | 41°16′10″S 173°15′59″E | 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 gun | 19 km (12 mi) | In Nelson. | |
| 85 | Smithfield Freezing Works | 44°22′16″S 171°14′41″E | 2 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 guns 4 × 40 mm Bofors |
19 km (12 mi) | 1942– 1944 |
In Timaru. The No 2 (Colchester type) gun shelter is in an excellent state of preservation.[66] |
| 134 | Westport | 41°43′48″S 171°35′15″E | 5 in (130 mm)Mk 7 gun (USA) 4 × 40 mm Bofors |
16 km (10 mi) | 1942– 1944 |
On South Spit. The gun emplacement is no longer there but the battery observation post is visible on Google Earth.[67] |
| 134 | Cobden | 42°26′15″S 171°12′45″E | 5 in (130 mm) Mk 7 gun (USA) 4 × 40 mm Bofors |
16 km (10 mi) | 1942– 1944 |
At Greymouth. Establishment: 2 Officers, 1 WO, 3 Sergeants and 26 ORs. Grey District Council destroyed part of this site, without consultation, in 2007 to make way for a sewer line.[68] |
| 143 | Wainui | 43°49′46″S 172°54′17″E | 2 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 guns 4 × 40 mm Bofors 2 × CASLs |
19 km (12 mi) | 1942– 1944 |
In Akaroa Harbour on Banks Peninsula[69] |
Lower South Island
Under the command of the 13th Coast Regiment.[28][29]
| Battery | Name | Way- point |
World War II Ordnance |
Range | Dates | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| RHQ | Dunedin | |||||
| 82 | Fort Taiaroa [Russian scare] |
45°47′12″S 170°43′39″E | 6 in (150 mm) EOC gun 5 × CASLs |
9.7 km (6 mi) |  | |
| 82 | Rerewahine | 45°47′13″S 170°44′45″E | 2 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 guns | 19 km (12 mi) | Otago Peninsula. | |
| 82 | Tomahawk | 45°54′19″S 170°33′11″E | 2 × 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 guns | 19 km (12 mi) | Dunedin | |
| 82 | Harington Point | 45.7834°S 170.7245°E | 2 × twin 6 lb (2.7 kg) guns 2 × 6 lb (2.7 kg) H&N |
Dunedin | ||
| 141 | Cape Wanbrow | 45°07′13″S 170°58′50″E | 5 in (130 mm) Mk 7 gun (USA) | 16 km (10 mi) | 1942– | Under the care of the Oamaru Coastal Defence Restoration Group[71][72] |
| 142 | Bluff | 46.61215°S 168.35365°E | 6 in (150 mm) Mk 7 gun | 19 km (12 mi) |
Post war
The advent of air warfare and missiles made these forts redundant and most were decommissioned by the 1950s. Godley Head continued because of compulsory military training and last fired a gun in 1959. The Department of Conservation has the remains of around 30 installations on land it manages.[57]
Postscript
None of the forts fired a gun in anger, though in October 1939 a Battery Point gun at Lyttelton accidentally sank the fishing boat "Dolphin" and killed its skipper.[73]
In 1972 the United States declassified a contingency plan for invading New Zealand. This plan consisted of a 120-page intelligence document called Naval War Plan for the Attack of Auckland, New Zealand. The intelligence for the report was gathered during the visit of the Great White Fleet to Auckland over six days in 1908. The plan advocated Manukau Harbour as the best invasion point and landing heavy guns on Rangitoto Island to shell the forts on the North Shore. The plan was not very realistic and may have been an exercise to keep young officers busy (see United States war plans; which allocated the colour Garnet to New Zealand as part of War Plan Red).[74]