Desecration of the tombs of the Saint-Denis basilica

After the abolition of the monarchy on 10 August 1792, the provisional government ordered the melting down of monuments made of bronze, silver, and metals in general. Forty-seven tombs in the Basilica of Saint-Denis were destroyed for this purpose, such as that of Charles VIII of France, made in gilded bronze, although some were saved from destruction at the request of the National Convention's Commission of Fine Arts, which in 1793 had ordered the destruction of the insignia of feudalism and of royal tombs in all buildings of the Republic.^[1]

The proposal to decide the fate of the tombs and bodies at Saint-Denis was made during the Reign of Terror at the National Convention session of 31 July 1793 by Barère, in order to commemorate the storming of the Tuileries on 10 August 1792 and to strike at the “impure ashes of tyrants” under the pretext of recovering the lead from coffins.^[2] The National Convention, after hearing the report of the Committee of Public Safety, announced in its second decree of 1 August 1793:^[3]

The tombs and mausoleums of the former kings, situated in the church of Saint-Denis, in temples and other places, throughout the Republic, shall be destroyed on 10 August.^[4]

Dom Germain Poirier, a Benedictine scholar of the Congregation of Saint-Maur,^[5] a deputy of the Commission of Monuments and an archivist of the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés and of Saint-Denis,^[6] was appointed commissioner to attend the opening of the tombs, while Meigné, commissioner of the Central Administration for the extraordinary manufacture of arms,^[1] was tasked with supervising the exhumation work. The month of August was devoted to the exhumation of bodies at the official request of citizen Meignié, although this decision was not fully implemented until October because a member of the convention, Joseph Lequinio, denounced its non-application on 7 September. From 6 August, several funerary monuments (tombs, statues, columns, altars, stained glass, etc.) were dismantled or destroyed, with bodies placed on the ground.^[7]

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Dom Poirier was the principal eyewitness to the exhumation and desecration of the royal tombs. He remained day and night in the basilica from 12 to 25 October,^[8] drafting several reports for the Commission of Monuments.^[9] In 1796, the Report on the exhumation of royal bodies at Saint-Denis in 1793 supplemented those reports with information provided by Dom Druon, rector of the Abbey of Saint-Denis.^[10] Later testimonies, such as that of the future heritage curator Alexandre Lenoir, another eyewitness,^[11] or that of Georges d'Heylli, who republished this report in 1872 in Les tombes royales de Saint-Denis, largely reproduce the information provided by Dom Druon.

Dom Poirier recorded that the remains of some prominent individuals could not be found, such as those of Cardinal de Retz^[12] (died 1679) or those of Alfonso of Brienne. Once stone and marble funerary monuments were cut or broken, several bodies were uncovered in varying states of preservation; among those mentioned by witnesses were Louis XV—whose body had not been embalmed due to smallpox—and Louis XIV, described by witnesses as having darkened in color. The body of Henry IV was found in unusually good condition and was reportedly displayed inside the basilica for two days.^[13] Other bodies suffered various forms of damage. Some revolutionaries took nails, hair, teeth, or bones as trophies or for sale, since the manufacture of medicinal ointments from human mummy remains had been a known practice for centuries.^[14] The bodies of more than 170 people (46 kings, 32 queens, 63 princes of the blood, 10 servants of the realm, and about two dozen abbots of Saint-Denis) were thrown into two mass graves, called “Valois” and “Bourbons”, dug for this purpose along the courtyard of the monks’ cemetery,^[15] adjacent to the basilica. One was intended for the “first races” of the Valois (that is, earlier dynasties) and the other for the Bourbons. After several onlookers descended into the pits to collect “relics”, the bodies were partly covered with quicklime and earth.^[16][17] In the vaults, lead canisters or barrels containing the entrails of several kings were found; they were opened and their contents were thrown into the pits.

A man named Brulay, receiver of the Saint-Denis domains in 1793, is said to have stolen some of these remains. During the Bourbon Restoration, his widow unsuccessfully attempted to sell them to Louis XVIII. Later sold at auction, these remains eventually became part of the collection of the Tavet-Delacour Museum in Pontoise, though the provenance of some items has been questioned, such as the jaw of Dagobert I, two teeth and a piece of skull attributed to Louis IX, several teeth attributed to Henry III, hair attributed to Philip II, or the mummified leg attributed to Catherine de' Medici.^[18]

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Dom Poirier attended the exhumations for the first time in August 1793. The following remains were exhumed:

• Philip III of France.
• Isabella of Aragon.
• Pepin the Short.
• Bertrada of Laon.
• Constance of Castile (1136–1160), wife of Louis VII of France.
• Louis VI of France.

Most activity in the basilica in August focused on melting down metal tombs, leading to the melting of, among many others, the copper slab of Margaret of Provence, the gilded bronze effigy of Charles the Bald, and the imposing gilded and enamelled bronze tomb of Charles VIII.

It was during the second period of desecrations, in October 1793, that exhumations were carried out on a large scale. Dom Germain Poirier recorded in his report that workers, accompanied by “exhumation commissioners” (supervisors), the “commissioner of goldsmiths” (responsible for recovering objects made of precious metals and sending them to the National Convention), and the “commissioner of lead” (responsible for recovering coffin lead for melting), descended with lanterns and torches into the Bourbon vault, where fifty-four oak coffins rested on iron trestles corroded by rust.^[19] Air-purifying substances, such as juniper and vinegar, were placed in the vault to reduce odors. According to Poirier, the exhumations carried out in October 1793 were as follows:

• Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne (Turenne). His good state of preservation reportedly prompted restraint, and because he was still remembered for his popularity and military victories, his body was not desecrated, though it was displayed for a time; when entrusted to a guard, that guard extracted and sold his teeth. He was taken to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, later to the Museum of French Monuments, and finally, by order of Napoleon Bonaparte, to the Church of Saint-Louis at Les Invalides, where he remains.^[20]
• Henry IV. His oak coffin was opened with hammers and his lead coffin with a chisel. According to witnesses, his body was well preserved and facial features were recognizable (he had been embalmed “in the Italian manner”). He was reportedly left upright, leaning against one of the choir columns, inside his coffin and wrapped in a shroud that was also well preserved. He remained on display until the morning of Monday, 14 October, when he was carried to the foot of the sanctuary steps, where he remained until two o’clock in the afternoon.^[21] Before his body was placed in the Valois pit, some people reportedly took small “relics”, such as nails and hair from his beard.^[22] There was also a rumour that a delegate of the Commune made a plaster cast of his face. Likewise, there is no document or archive record stating that the king's head was cut off and stolen. Witnesses stated that Henry IV's body was deposited whole at the bottom of the mass grave and later covered with the remains of his descendants. However, when Louis XVIII sought to restore the basilica's tombs, three bodies were discovered missing their skulls, one of them attributed to Henry IV. In 2008, a head appeared in the possession of Jacques Bellanger, who had acquired it seven years after it had been refused by the Louvre due to doubts about its provenance, although Joseph Emile Bourdais, an antiques dealer who had owned it since 1919, had always maintained that the skull was Henry IV's. DNA analyses and a facial reconstruction study were reported to have confirmed its authenticity.

Because the exhumations had been hindered by the presence of onlookers, it was decided to close the basilica to all persons not involved in the work, although this decision was not ultimately enforced.

• Louis XIII. His coffin was opened at around three o’clock in the afternoon; the body was badly deteriorated and said to be recognizable only by his black moustache. It was thrown face down into the mass grave on a bed of quicklime, intended to accelerate decomposition.
• Louis XIV. His body was described as recognizably preserved, though darkened in color, attributed to gangrene before his death. His body was thrown into the mass grave, and the copper plaque commemorating him was removed and turned into a cooking pot. His heart, along with that of Louis XII, was used by the painter Martin Drolling in his Interior of a Kitchen (1807).
• Marie de' Medici. When workers opened her lead coffin, they found bones in a muddy substance. Workers reportedly insulted her, accusing her of the murder of Henry IV, and some pulled the last remaining locks of hair from the skull and passed them around.
• Anne of Austria. Her body, in an advanced state of decomposition, was wrapped in a thick red cloth, said to be the habit of the Third Order of Saint Francis.
• Maria Theresa of Spain, wife of Louis XIV.
• Louis, the Grand Dauphin, son of Louis XIV. His body was described as severely decomposed.

• Marie Leszczyńska, wife of Louis XV.
• Maria Anna of Bavaria, paternal grandmother of Louis XV and mother of Philip V of Spain.
• Louis of France (1682–1712), father of Louis XV.
• Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, mother of Louis XV.
• Louis of France (1704–1705), brother of Louis XV.
• Louis of France (1707–1712), brother of Louis XV.
• Xavier Marie of France (1753–1754), brother of Louis XVI.
• Marie Zéphyrine of France (1750–1755), sister of Louis XVI.
• Marie Thérèse of France (1746–1748), granddaughter of Louis XV.
• Marie Thérèse of France (1752), sister of Louis XVI.
• Philippe of France (1730–1733), son of Louis XV.
• Henriette of France, daughter of Louis XV.
• Marie Louise of France (1728–1733), daughter of Louis XV.
• Louise-Élisabeth of France, daughter of Louis XV.
• Louis of France (1751–1761), brother of Louis XVI.
• Nicolas Henri of France (1607–1611), son of Henry IV.
• Marie of Bourbon-Montpensier, wife of Gaston of Orléans.
• Gaston of Orléans, son of Henry IV.
• Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, daughter of Gaston of Orléans.
• Margaret of Lorraine, wife of Gaston of Orléans.
• John Gaston of Orléans, son of Gaston of Orléans.
• Marie Anne of Orléans, daughter of Gaston of Orléans.

• Henrietta Maria of France, daughter of Henry IV and wife of Charles I of England.
• Henrietta of England, wife of Philippe I of Orléans.
• Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, brother of Louis XIV.
• Elizabeth Charlotte, Duchess of Orléans, wife of Philippe I of Orléans.
• Charles of France, grandson of Louis XIV.
• Marie Louise Élisabeth of Orléans, granddaughter of Louis XIV and wife of Charles of France.
• Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, Regent of France.
• Anne Élisabeth of France (1662), daughter of Louis XIV.
• Anne Marie of France, daughter of Louis XIV.
• Philippe Charles of France (1668–1671), son of Louis XIV.
• Louis François of France (1672), son of Louis XIV.
• Marie Thérèse of France (1667–1672), daughter of Louis XIV.
• Philippe Charles of Orléans, son of Philippe I of Orléans.
• A daughter of Philippe I of Orléans born and died in 1665.
• Alexandre Louis of Orléans (1673–1676), nephew of Louis XIV.
• Charles of Alençon, son of Charles of France.
• Mademoiselle de Alençon, daughter of Charles of France.
• Marie Louise Élisabeth of Alençon, daughter of Charles of France.
• Sophie of France, daughter of Louis XV.
• Mademoiselle d'Angoulême, daughter of Charles X of France.
• Sophie of France (1776–1783), daughter of Charles X.
• Sophie of France (1786–1787), daughter of Louis XVI.
• Louis Joseph of France, son of Louis XVI.
• Louis XV. His coffin was found in a niche near the entrance to the vault, traditionally used for the most recently deceased king. When opened, the body was described as still intact but heavily decomposed, with a strong odor, and workers reportedly burned gunpowder to “purify” the air. It was quickly thrown into the mass grave.

(At this point the Bourbon vault was emptied, so the Valois vault was opened to continue the exhumations.)

• Charles V of France.
• Joan of Bourbon, wife of Charles V.
• Charles of France, son of Charles VI. His small skeleton was described as desiccated.
• Isabella of France, daughter of Charles V.
• John of France (1366), son of Charles V.

• Charles VI of France.
• Isabeau of Bavaria, wife of Charles VI.
• Charles VII of France.
• Marie of Anjou, wife of Charles VII.
• Blanche of Évreux, wife of Philip VI of France.
• Joan of France, daughter of Philip VI. The body was found without a head, probably due to repairs carried out at the entrance of the niche in earlier years.
• Margaret of Valois, daughter of Henry II and wife of Henry IV.
• François of France, Duke of Alençon and Anjou, son of Henry II.
• Francis II of France.
• Marie Élisabeth of France, daughter of Charles IX.
• Charles VIII. Only a few bones could be recovered, described as almost reduced to powder.

• Henry II of France.
• Catherine de' Medici.
• Charles IX of France.
• Henry III of France.
• Louis of France, Duke of Orléans, son of Henry II.
• Joan of France, daughter of Henry II.
• Victoria of France, daughter of Henry II.
• Louis XII of France.
• Anne of Brittany.
• Joan II of Navarre, daughter of Louis X of France.
• Louis X of France.
• John I of France.

(At this point the Valois vault was partially emptied, so the Capet vault was opened to continue the exhumations.)

• Hugh the Great, father of Hugh Capet. His body was found reduced to ashes.
• Charles the Bald.
• Hugh Capet.
• Adelaide of Aquitaine, wife of Hugh Capet.
• Robert II of France.
• Constance of Arles, wife of Robert II.
• Philip of France, son and heir of Louis VI.

• Philip Hurepel, son of Philip II.
• Alphonse of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX. His body was found reduced to ashes, though his hair was reported as well preserved.
• Philip II of France.
• Louis VIII of France.
• Margaret of Provence, wife of Louis IX.
• Marie of France (1326–1341), daughter of Charles IV of France.
• Blanche of France (1328–1394), daughter of Charles IV.
• Louis IX of France.
• Philip IV of France.
• Dagobert I.
• Nanthild, wife of Dagobert I. Among the bones the skull was missing, probably left in the first burial place when Louis IX transferred the remains.
• John Tristan of France, son of Louis IX.

In the tumulus containing the tombs of Marie (1326–1341) and Blanche of France (1328–1394) there was only rubble; both the bodies and coffins were missing.

• Bertrand du Guesclin. His skeleton was found complete, with bones described as desiccated.
• Bureau de La Rivière.

(At this point the Capet vault was emptied, so the exhumations were finished in the Valois vault.)

• Francis I of France.
• Louise of Savoy.
• Claude of France.
• Francis III, Duke of Brittany and Dauphin of France, son of Francis I.
• Charles of France, Duke of Angoulême, son of Francis I.
• Charlotte of France, daughter of Francis I.
• Louise of France, daughter of Francis I.
• Pedro de Beaucaire, chamberlain of Louis IX.
• Mateo de Vendôme, Abbot of Saint-Denis.

The remains of Francis I, Louise of Savoy, Claude of France, Francis III of Brittany, Charles II of Orléans, and Charlotte of France were described as having deteriorated into a liquid state and emitting a strong odor. During the transfer of coffins to the pits, black liquid reportedly seeped through cracks in the caskets.

• Arnault Guilhem de Barbazan, chamberlain of Charles VII.
• Louis II of Sancerre, constable of Charles VI. His head was found with hair described as perfectly braided.

(The friars’ vault was opened to continue the exhumations.)

• Abbot Suger. His bones were found pulverized.
• Abbot Troon. His bones were found pulverized.
• Sedila de Sainte-Croix, wife of Juan Pastourel, president of the Chambre des Comptes under the reign of Charles V.

(The Valois vault was emptied.)

• Charles IV of France.

• Joan of Évreux, wife of Charles IV. Her bones were found in the tomb, desecrated and looted the previous night, except for the skull, which could not be located.
• Philip V of France. His skeleton was found in good condition.
• Joan II of Burgundy, wife of Philip V. Her bones were found desiccated.
• John II of France. His bones were found charred.

In the following days, the workers, accompanied by the commissioner of lead, went to the cemetery of the Carmelite convent of Saint-Denis to exhume the remains of Louise of France, daughter of Louis XV, which—described as decomposed—were thrown into the mass grave alongside her relatives.

• Margaret I of Burgundy, daughter of Philip V.