Di Xin

Participation in feng

In contemporary records, as is the role of the Shang king, Di Xin is recorded as having upheld Shang dynasty religion in several bronze and oracle bone inscriptions, where he participates in feng 豊, the Shang dynasty concept of ritual communion with ancestors.^[26] This implies a trend of reduction in human sacrifice compared to previous rulers; likewise, after Di Xin's reign ended, ritual sacrifice increased in the Zhou dynasty.^[27][28][29]

The diviners that worked with Di Xin are small in number, comprising the Huang (黃) group of Period V in oracle bone divination. Of these, Yong (永) and Huang (黃) were the most prolific, the former being a veteran of Di Yi's reign and the latter a new arrival who specifically divinated about campaigns against the Renfang (人方).^{[30][31][32][33]}

In the fourth year of his reign, he performed an yi sacrifice on an Yisi day dedicated to his father Di Yi, signalling the start of another ritual cycle.^[34] This was actualised with a zhu sacrifice being made later, to which an individual named Bi Qi 邲其 was rewarded with cowry money.^[35] This activity would continue at least into his 22nd year, having performed a rong ritual for his father, signalling the end of a cycle. He rewarded the minister assisting him with cowry money 貝, which was spent on a bronze vessel.^[36]

During his 15th year on a Disi day of Rong sacrifice, Di Xin is recorded as having inspected Kuai during his war with the Renfang. He rewarded an individual named Xiaochen Yu 小臣艅 with cowry money, who would then make a bronze zun [zh]imaged after a Sumatran rhinoceros.^[37]

Concubines

Di Xin had several concubines, of whom two are named, though contemporary sources are scarce. His favourite was allegedly Daji, who is described as a temptress who manipulated him into committing torturous acts, of which the two garnered pleasure.^[9] His second concubine was the daughter of Lord Jiu 九侯女, of whom lacks a definitive name. She was presented to Di Xin by a ruler from the Guifang, who had become allies with the Shang after a three-year war.^[38] However, she was allegedly killed due to her disliking lust ("不喜淫"), and her father was killed after.^[9] However, conflicting accounts claim that Daji called her ugly and feared Di Xin would no longer pay attention to her, convincing him to kill her.^[39] Her tomb is located in Qixian County, Hebi in Henan.^[40][41]

Proposed tomb

Di Xin's tomb is thought to be No. 1567 in Yinxu, but his body was not found inside, and the tomb itself was empty. Additionally, it lacks the structures seen with other Shang royal tombs despite being in the same royal ^[49] Whether he was buried there or it was desecrated by the Zhou is unclear.^[50] Because Shang royal tombs were repeatedly and persistently looted in antiquity, it is near-impossible to test the hypothesis beyond process of elimination.^[49] Uchida and Mizoguchi argue that Di Xin never had a tomb, and that it is more likely to have belonged to Di Yi.^[51]

Aftermath

After the annexation of Shang, Di Xin’s brothers Zi Qi and Zi Yan would successively rule the vassal state Song in the burgeoning Zhou dynasty.^[9]

Debate on authenticity

The narrative of "King Zhou" comes from the perspective of the conquering Zhou dynasty, and some aspects are reproduced from lost documents.^[52][53] Over the centuries since the Battle of Muye, the allegations made against Di Xin worsened over time. In the beginning, Di Xin was seen as an inept ruler; come the Han dynasty, he is depicted as a tyrant who tortured dissidents and engaged in wonton lust.^[53] Therefore, the authenticity of the allegations made is considered debatable.^[52][53]

Suspicions of the Zhou dynasty view of Di Xin can be seen rearing up during the Warring States period in the Analects, Zi Gong, using the Zhou exonym yet questioning Di Xin's actions, states thusly:

子貢曰：「紂之不善，不如是之甚也。是以君子惡居下流，天下之惡皆歸焉。」

Zi Gong said, "Zhou's wickedness was not so great as that name implies. Therefore, the superior man hates to dwell in a low-lying situation, where all the evil of the world will flow in upon him."^[55]

During the Southern Song dynasty, scholar Luo Mi wrote in the Lushi that he also considered the allegations against Di Xin to be largely unreliable and exaggerated after reviewing various documents:^[56][57]

大抵書傳所記桀紂之事多出模倣。如世紀等倒拽九牛、撫梁易柱、引鈎申索、握鐡流湯、傾宮瑤室、與夫璿臺三里、金柱三千、車行酒、騎行炙、酒池糟丘、脯林肉圃、宮中九市、牛飲三千、丘鳴鬼哭、山走石泣、兩日並出、以人食獸、六月獵西山、以百二十日為夜等事。紂為如是，而謂桀亦如是，是豈其俱然哉？

"Generally speaking, the affairs of Jie and Di Xin^[b] recorded in books and traditions mostly arise from imitation. For example, in works like Records of the Grand Historian, there are stories of dragging nine bulls backward, bracing beams and swapping pillars, stretching bronze hooks, grasping hot iron and flowing hot water, leaning palaces and jasper chambers, along with a jade tower three li around, three thousand golden pillars, carts that travel through wine, riders that travel over roast meat, pools of wine and mounds of lees, forests of dried meat and gardens of flesh, nine markets inside the palace, three thousand drinking like cattle, mounds that wail and ghosts that cry, mountains that run and stones that weep, two suns rising together, humans eating beasts, hunting on West Mountain in the sixth month, and making one hundred and twenty days into a single night. If Di Xin is said to have done these things, and Jie is also said to have done the same, how could it be that both were truly like this?"

Gu Xiagang and other Doubting Antiquity School historians noted that the further into later periods sources were, the more detailed and numerous the accusations against Di Xin became. Most notably, the concept of the Mandate of Heaven 天命 as mentioned in these posthumous texts is a subject of considerable debate. Some scholars, like Chao Fulin, argue that the Shang dynasty did not possess the later concept of the 'Mandate of Heaven', which dictates the rise and fall of dynasties. In the 'Book of Shang,' for example, the term 'Mandate of Heaven' actually refers to 'the command of the ancestors' (the spiritual power of the ancestors in heaven to bless or abandon one's life).^[58][59][60]

Charges from the Zhou

The apocryphal^[c] "Great Declaration" in the Book of Documents raises six charges against Di Xin: Not paying reverence to heaven, committing calamities against those below him, abandoning himself to drink and lust, extending punishments to relatives, nepotism via hereditary receipt, killing pregnant women, and building excessive royal quarters (e.g. Palaces, gardens, pavilions). Similar ideas would be repeated in Records of the Grand Historian, Lushi Chunqiu, and other works.^[61] According to Sima Qian, he even hosted festive orgies, where many people engaged in immoral things at the same time with his concubines and created songs with crude, erotic lyrics and poor rhythm. In legends, he is depicted as having come under the influence of his wicked wife Daji, and committing all manner of evil and cruel deeds with her.^[9] However, contemporary records such as bronze vessels and oracle bone inscriptions contradict this characterisation, with him being seemingly consistent in his observance of the religion of the Shang dynasty and ancestral rites.^[36]

Lake of Wine and Forest of Meat

One of the most famous forms of entertainment Di Xin enjoyed, noted in Shuo Yuan, was the "Lake of Wine and Forest of Meat" (酒池肉林) built at the Deer Terrace Pavilion.^[62] A large pool, big enough for several canoes, was constructed with inner linings of polished oval-shaped stones from the seashore. This allowed for the entire pool to be filled with wine. A small island was constructed in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which had branches made of roasted meat skewers hanging over the pool. This allowed Di Xin and his friends and concubines to drift on canoes in the pool. When they thirsted, they reached down into the pool with their hands and drank the wine. When they hungered, they reached up with their hands to eat the roasted meat.^[9] The narrative of the "Lake of Wine and Forest of Meat" was questioned as early as the Han dynasty. Scholar Wang Chong, in his work Lunheng, suggested the accounts of "wine pools and meat forests" were unreliable.^[63]

A large, stone, artificial pool thought to be the pool at the Deer Terrace Pavilion was unearthed in Yanshi, Henan in 1999. As water wells were found nearby, the researchers concluded that it was not designed to provide groundwater to individuals, but whether it was used for recreation, aesthetic, or ritual use is unclear.^[64]

Torture accusations

In order to please Daji, he created the "Punishment of burning flesh with a hot iron (炮格之刑)".^[65] One large hollow bronze cylinder was stuffed with burning charcoal and allowed to burn until red-hot; then prisoners were made to hug the cylinder, which resulted in a painful and unsightly death. Di Xin and Daji were said to become highly aroused after watching such torture. Victims ranged from ordinary people and prisoners to high government officials, such as Mei Bo.^[66] Despite this, no tomb of Daji, nor evidence of Daji's existence, has materialised in the excavation of Yin.

Killing of Bi Gan

In order to fund Di Xin's heavy daily expenses, heavy taxes were implemented. The people suffered greatly, and lost all hope for the Shang dynasty. His brother Wei Zi tried to persuade him to change, but was rebuked. His uncle Bi Gan similarly pleaded with him, but Di Xin had his heart ripped out so he could see what the heart of a sage looked like. When his other uncle Jizi heard this, he went to plead with the kingly nephew and, feigning madness, was imprisoned. This narrative is recorded in texts such as Records of the Grand Historian.^[9]

However, the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project and other studies have pointed out inconsistencies in this account. Bi Gan's death due to his confrontation with his nephew is recorded in the Spring and Autumn period, while the account of his heart being removed by Di Xin appeared much later in the fables of the Warring States period, indicating that extra details were likely added to these accounts reinforce Di Xin's tyrannical image.^[67][68] It is not reflected in oracle bone evidence.

Killing of Bo Yikao

In the 9th Century Record of Emperors and Kings (帝王世紀), it is said that Di Xin put Bo Yikao, King Wu of Zhou's brother, to death by lingchi, which would be the earliest case of it occurring.^[69] This would go on to be cited in various works, including the Yiwen Leiju, commentaries on the Records of the Grand Historian, and occur in the historical fiction Fengshen Yanyi. However, this is not mentioned in texts prior to the 9th Century record,^[70] and the concept of this penalty did not become prevalent until the Liao dynasty encoded it by law in the 10th century, which was wrought with much controversy at the time.^[69]