Empresario

Stephen F. Austin, also known as "The Father of Texas", is most known for bringing over the first group of colonists into the state of Texas, this group is famously known as The Old Three Hundred.^[2]

He was born to Moses and Maria Austin on November 3rd in the year 1798 somewhere in southwestern Virginia before his family relocated to southeastern Missouri where the town of Potosi was then established. That is where Austin spent his time getting educated until he turned eleven, which is the age in which Moses sent him to Connecticut to receive a proper education. After attending his grade school there, he spent two years in Transylvania University in the state of Kentucky.^[3]

After returning home in the spring of 1810, Stephen worked as the manager of his father's general store while also serving in his town's local militia and obtaining the charter for the Bank of St. Louis. After the failure of his family's business, he made a new life for himself in the state of Arkansas as a circuit judge where he served from July 1820 to August of the same year.^[4] He moved yet again to the city of New Orleans, there in which he lived with Joseph H. Hawkins, a close friend who later helped with the colonization of Texas.^[5] During this time, Moses Austin had traveled to San Antonio to apply for the land grant that his son would later inherit.

In the year 1821, Moses Austin's land grant was approved, giving him permission to settle 300 families in the state of Texas, known then as Coahuila y Tejas, but he died shortly after the approval, leaving Stephen to inherit his father's empresario contract. Stephen F. Austin was unable to settle the land until later that year and quickly found willing colonists to join him. The Old Three Hundred, as the title in which this group is famously known by, arrived in Texas from 1823 to 1824. During this time, Austin worked to two land commissioners, Baron de Bastrop and Gaspar Flores de Abrego, to issue titles. The land in which was settled along the Brazos, Colorado and San Bernard Rivers, most of which is considered modern-day Brazos County and the area of San Felipe de Austin.^[6]

In the late 18th century, Spain stopped allocating new lands in much of Spanish Texas, stunting the growth of the province.^[7] Spain's shift in policy reflected growing concern over U.S. expansionism and the declining population of its northern frontier, which left Texas vulnerable to foreign encroachment.^[8] It changed this policy in 1820 and made it more flexible, allowing colonists of any religion to settle in Texas (formerly settlers were required to be Catholic, the established religion of the Spanish Empire).^[9] Moses Austin, an American colonist, was the only man granted an empresarial contract in Texas under Spanish law. But Moses Austin died before he could begin his colony, and Mexico achieved its independence from Spain in September 1821. At this time, about 3500 colonists lived in Texas, mostly congregated at San Antonio and La Bahia.^[10]

The Mexican government continued the generous immigration policies in order to develop east Texas.^[11] Mexican officials viewed Anglo-American immigration as a strategic buffer against Indigenous groups such as the Comanche, whose raids threatened settlement stability in the region.^[12] Even as the government debated a new colonization law, Stephen F. Austin, son of Moses Austin, was given permission to take over his father's colonization contract. Stephen F. Austin is probably the best known and most successful empresario in Texas. The first group of colonists, known as the Old Three Hundred, arrived in 1822 and settled along the Brazos River, ranging from the Gulf of Mexico to near present-day Dallas.^[13]

In 1823, Mexico’s authoritarian ruler Agustín de Iturbide enacted a colonization law authorizing the national government to enter into a contract granting land to an “empresario,” or promoter, who was required to recruit a minimum of two hundred families to settle the grant.^[14]

Mexico approved immigration on a wider basis in 1824 with enactment of the General Colonization Law. This law authorized all heads of household who were citizens of or immigrants to Mexico as eligible to claim land.^[11] The law also authorized individual Mexican states to establish their own colonization regulations, which allowed Coahuila y Tejas to adopt its own laws governing land distribution and empresario contracts.^[12] After the law was enacted, the state government of Coahuila y Tejas was inundated with requests by foreign speculators to establish colonies within the state.^[15] There was no shortage of people willing to come to Texas. The United States was still struggling with the aftermath of the Panic of 1819, and soaring land prices within the United States made the Mexican land policy seem very generous.^[15]

Most successful empresarios recruited colonists primarily in the United States. Only two of the groups that attempted to recruit in Europe built lasting colonies, Refugio and San Patricio.^[16][17] These colonies were successful in part because the empresarios spoke Spanish, were Catholic and generally familiar with Mexican ways, and allowed local Mexican families to join their colonies.^[17]

Mexican officials grew increasingly concerned about Anglo-American settlers' insistence on bringing enslaved people into Texas, which conflicted with evolving national policies on slavery. ^[18] In 1829, Mexico abolished slavery, which affected the Anglo-American settlers’ quest for wealth in building colonizations worked by enslaved Africans. They lobbied the Mexican government for a reversal of the ban and gained only a one-year extension to settle their affairs and free their bonded workers—the government refused to legalize slavery. In response to the tensions, the Mexican government passed the law of April 6, 1830, which prohibited further immigration from the United States and established new presidios to enforce customs and immigration laws.^[18] Anglo-Texan colonists responded by organizing conventions in 1832 and 1833, where they demanded renewed U.S. immigration and proposed that Texas become a separate Mexican state.^[18]

Unlike its predecessor, the Mexican law required settlers to practice Catholicism and stressed that foreigners needed to learn Spanish.^[19] The Mexican authorities struggled to regulate migration of U.S. citizens due to resistance from Anglos and limited officials in the Mexican government.^[20] However, settlers were supposed to own property or have a craft or useful profession, and all people wishing to live in Texas were expected to report to the nearest Mexican authority for permission to settle. The rules were widely disregarded, and many families became squatters.^[21]

Under the new laws, people who did not already possess property in Texas could claim 4438 acres of irrigable land, with an additional 4438 available to those who owned cattle. Empresarios and individuals with large families were exempt from the limit.^[22] Soldiers were given first choice of land, followed by citizens and immigrants, and those who had held property under Spanish rule were allowed to retain is as long as they had not supported Spain during the war for independence.^[18] Immigrants were also expected to follow the same settlement policies as Mexican citizens, and Native Americans who moved into Texas after independence were treated as immigrants under the law.^[18] Colonists were also required to provide proof of their Christian faith, good moral character, and good habits before receiving title to land.^[23]

After the Republic of Texas won its independence from Mexico, the young nation continued its own version of the empresario program, offering grants to French diplomat Henri Castro and abolitionist Charles Fenton Mercer, among others. Mercer later organized the Texas Association to finance and promote settlement under his empresario contract after receiving it in 1844.^[31] By this time, many earlier empresario contracts had already been canceled or suspended under Mexican law, especially after the 1830 immigration restrictions and the political instability that followed.^[18] The new Texan government used empresario grants primarily to encourage settlement in frontier regions and to strengthen defenses against Indigenous groups such as the Comanche.^[32] In 1837, the Republic of Texas declared that empresario contracts had ended with the Texas Declaration of Independence.^[23]

• Ranchos of California
• Patroon (a similar system in New Netherland)