Episcopa

The term "episcopa" is contested. Some scholars propose it referred to bishops' wives,^[2][3] others suggest it denoted women overseeing groups like virgins or widows, similar to an abbess,^[2] and a minority argue it indicated women ordained as bishops with active ecclesiastical roles.^[2] However, these views face challenges: specialized roles like abbess had distinct terms (e.g., "abbatissa"),^[4] and Latin canonical texts, such as Canon 14 of the Council of Nicaea (325 CE), use "coniux" for a bishop's wife, not "episcopa", with no Latin literature applying "episcopa" to wives.^[2][4] Despite this distinction, 19th century literature still highlights it be referring to either the wife of a bishop, including one later ordained as such, or an abbess.^[5] Conversely, Ally Kateusz (2019) contends that "episcopa" designated female clergy serving as bishops in some Western communities, distinct from the masculine "episcopus".^[6]

Several archaeological and historical records document women titled "episcopa", fueling debate over their roles. Gary Macy (2008) asserts that only five documented references exist to women serving as bishops in Western Christianity.^[7]

A Latin epitaph from the late fourth century or later, found in the cemetery of the Basilica of St. Valentina in Terni, Italy, honors "(Hono)rabilis femina episcopa" (honorable woman bishop), also referred to as "Episcopa Terni" (Bishop Terni) in the Council of Tours, 567 CE (Canon 20).^[8] A Vatican Library manuscript also appears to list an episcopa taken from an epitaph from the same cemetery.^[9] The basilica, constructed over a Christian cemetery marking a third-century martyr-bishop's grave, provides no further details.^[2][10][11] Historian Joan Morris notes that while the church may have forgotten, "the very stones cry out" (p. 171).^[12]

In Umbria, north of Rome, a 5th-6th century marble tombstone of a woman was discovered.^[13] Ramelli et al. (2021, p. 91) date it to 500 CE.^[14] The weathered inscription's first line is unclear, but the second line reads: "If you will, traveller, note this inscription: here lies the venerable lady, bishop Q-, laid to rest in peace for five years...".^[15][13] The term "venerable" (venembilis) typically denotes clergy, not laypeople or clergy spouses.^[2] The Latin "fem episcopa" explicitly means "woman bishop",^[13] and "sacerdota" in this period typically referred to a bishop, not a priest.^[16] Despite no mention of a husband or male bishop, most scholars assume she was a bishop's wife.^[4] Historian Giorgio Otranto named her Addirittura and has dated the inscription to 491 or 526 CE.^[16] Madigan and Osiek date it to 390 CE, while identifying "Q" as either the mother or wife of Pope Siricius (384–399 CE).^[7]

During his papacy (817–824 CE), Pope Paschal I relocated martyrs' relics from the catacombs, interring 2,300 bodies under the San Zeno chapel (Santa Prassede), built for his mother, Theodora Episcopa, as noted in an 817 CE relic register.^[17] A ninth-century mosaic in the chapel depicts four women: Mary, Sts. Praxedis, and Prudentiana with round golden halos indicating sainthood, and Theodora Episcopa with a square white halo, signifying a living holy person.^[2] A reliquary inscription records Paschal I donating relics to the resting place of his mother, Theodora, titled "Episcopa".^[2] The feminine title "Episcopa", inscribed above Theodora's mosaic portrait (c. 900 CE), may indicate her role as a female bishop, as argued by scholars like Karen Jo Torjeson (1993) and Elizabeth Ursic (2021).^[18][19] The square halo suggests she was alive at the time of the portrait.^[20] Eisen (2000) stated that Theodora must have made significant contributions to the Church of Santa Prassede. She was honored with the title "episcopa", as shown by a mosaic and a reliquary inscription. Thus, her role as a bishop in Rome should be recognized.^[4] According to Ramelli et al. (2021, p. 90), Paschal's father Bonosus was never a bishop nor recognized as an episcopus. Therefore, Theodora's title of "episcopa" could not have come merely from her familial connection and must derive from another source or role.^[14]

Gary Macy (2008) cites the 9th-century Bethu Brigte, which describes Brigid of Ireland as ordained to the episcopacy. The text recounts Bishop Mél of Ardagh, "intoxicated with the grace of God", mistakenly consecrating Brigid with bishop's orders, marked by a fiery column ascending from her head. The account explicitly states Brigid was ordained as a bishop, not metaphorically, and Bishop Mel affirmed her unique episcopal status, indicating that, for this Irish writer, a woman could be ordained as a bishop.^[7] Multiple medieval sources assert that she was ordained as a bishop, a title that her successors as abbess at Kildare retained until Ireland's ecclesiastical hierarchy was significantly reformed in 1152 CE during the Synod of Kells.^[21]