Fluier
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
• 421.22 (end-blown fipple fluiers)
• 421.12 (transverse fluiers)
 Fluier with fipple, Muntenia, end of XX century | |
| Classification | Aerophone |
|---|---|
| Hornbostel–Sachs classification | • 421.11 (fipple-less fluiers) • 421.22 (end-blown fipple fluiers) • 421.12 (transverse fluiers) |
| Related instruments | |
| floyara, frilka, frula, fujara, fujarka, furulya | |
The fluier (Romanian: fluier; [ˈflu.jer]) is a traditional Romanian wind instrument, a type of shepherd's flute, common throughout the entire Romanian cultural area. It is an instrument with ancient Romanian roots, used predominantly in solo performance. In traditional culture, the fluier is primarily associated with the image of the solitary shepherd, for whom it serves as a means of self-expression and an accompaniment to daily life. The instrument's name is presumed to originate from the Latin: flare – "to blow".[1]
The fluier family includes instruments of various designs: single and double, end-blown, transverse and semi-transverse, open or equipped with a fipple, with a varying number of finger-holes or none at all.[2][3] By length, they are distinguished as small, medium, and large. They are most often made of wood, with bone or metal fluiers being less common.
The playing technique is characterized by high virtuosity and a wealth of expressive devices. In traditional practice, an archaic method of sound production with a guttural background (Romanian: ison gâjâit, ison gutural, gemut) is widely used. In this technique, a steady low resonance sounds along with the main melody, giving the performance a characteristic acoustic depth.
The fluier played an important role in shepherd culture, performing not only musical but also ritual, signaling, and communicative functions. Its sound accompanied rites for protecting the flock, initiation, courtship, and funerals, and also served as an accompaniment for dances and festive songs. The repertoire covered a wide range of genres from magico-ritual melodies to entertainment pieces, reflecting the key aspects of rural community life.
Origin and early evidence
The fluier is a wind instrument specific to the Romanian cultural area, which encompasses the historical and modern territories inhabited by Romanians.[2] A combination of archaeological, historical, linguistic, and organological data testifies to its deep roots in the region. The oldest archaeological finds confirm the existence of flutes in this territory since prehistoric times: a bone flute from the Upper Paleolithic era was discovered at the Molodova V Paleolithic site (Chernivtsi Oblast, Ukraine).[4] Later, ancient authors such as Xenophon and Strabo mentioned the use of flutes by the Thracian tribes who inhabited these lands.[5][6] The Romanian linguistic heritage itself serves as important indirect evidence of the instrument's long history. The rich and diverse terminology used for the instrument – which includes numerous words derived from the root fluier alongside a multitude of other regional names,[i] as well as the great variety of fluier designs, each historically established in specific regions, point to a long and continuous process of the instrument's evolution within the Carpatho-Danubian space.[7]
Spread in the Middle Ages
The migration of the Vlachs (ancestors of the Romanians) in the 13th–14th centuries, associated with the development of mountain pastoralism, had a significant influence on the culture of the Carpathian region. Medieval chronicles attest to the widespread establishment of shepherd settlements organized under "Vlach law" (Latin: jus valachicum) among the Slavic peoples of Central Europe – in Galicia, Slovakia, the Polish Podhale, and Moravian Wallachia. The name of the flute, fluier, spread alongside these pastoral practices and their associated terminology. Over time, it was adapted by neighboring peoples, which is reflected in the names of related shepherd's wind instruments: the Hungarian furulya, the Slovak fujara, the Polish fujarka, as well as the Ukrainian frilka and floyara.[8][9]
The fluier at the hospodars' courts (16th–18th centuries)
Beginning in the 16th century, written sources confirm that the fluier was used not only in folk settings but also in the musical life at the courts of the hospodars[ii] (rulers) of the Romanian principalities. One of the earliest accounts belongs to the Saxon theologian and poet Johannes Sommer, who wrote in 1562–1563 that in the Principality of Moldavia, "the youth glorify the hospodar with the playing of the fluier".[10]
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By the 17th century, the fluier had gained a prominent place in court chamber ensembles. At the courts of hospodars Matei Basarab (1634–1654) and Vasile Lupu (1634–1653), its sound was an integral part of musical life. The traveler Paul of Aleppo, who visited Wallachia in 1653–1568, testified that at the hospodars' feasts, pieces performed with the "piercing voice of the fluiers" were invariably played. Fluier players (fluierași) were also part of court ensembles that performed colinde (carols) at Christmas and Epiphany.[10]
Even as a courtly instrument, the fluier continued to be associated with its pastoral origins. The Moldavian hospodar and scholar Dimitrie Cantemir, in his allegorical novel Hieroglyphic History (1704), mentions the fluier several times,[iii] characterizing it specifically as a shepherd's instrument.[11] This association with the pastoral environment persisted until the end of the 18th century: around 1776, the Polish envoy Karol Boscamp-Lasopolski noted that at a reception in Iași, Moldavian pieces were performed to the accompaniment of the shepherd's fluier – "an instrument very fashionable in this country." Gradually, towards the end of the century, the traditional repertoire at the courts began to be replaced by music of Ottoman, and later, Western European origin.[10]
Research
Systematic descriptions of Romanian folk instruments, including the fluier family, began to appear in the late 19th century. One of the first researchers was the archaeologist and folklorist Teodor Burada.[12][13][14] In the early 20th century, the musicologist and music historian Mihail Poslușnicu wrote a historical overview of the fluier and other Romanian folk instruments in his book The History of Romanian Music. From the Renaissance to the Era of Artistic Culture Consolidation (1928).[15]
The study of the fluier tradition was carried out by the Hungarian composer and folklorist Béla Bartók, as well as leading 20th-century Romanian ethnomusicologists – Constantin Brăiloiu, Tiberiu Alexandru, Ovidiu Papană, and others.[16]
Synthesizing works on the organology and genre structure of the fluier tradition also appeared, including: Tiberiu Alexandru's monographs The Musical Instruments of the Romanian People (1956)[17] and Romanian Folk Music (1975); [18] Vasile Chiseliță's study Instrumental Music of Northern Bukovina. The Fluier Repertoire (2002);[19] the collective monograph by Moldovan musicologists The Musical Art of Moldova. History and Modernity (2009);[20] and the second volume of Ovidiu Papană's five-volume edition Romanian Folk Instruments. Musical-Acoustic Studies (2019).[21]
Based on field recordings made by Constantin Brăiloiu and his colleagues in the 1930s and early 1940s, as well as later materials collected by the staff of the Institute of Ethnography and Folklore, a series of vinyl records and compact discs were released. These include authentic fluier music from both the pre-war period (recordings from the 1930s) and the post-war period (up to the 1960s). Among them are:
- Antologia muzicii populare româneşti (1960–1962) – a two-volume edition of folk melodies (six LPs, Electrecord label). It was accompanied by booklets in Romanian, English, French, and Russian, and was reissued in 1976.[22]
- The Folk Music of Rumania (1963) – a compilation of Romanian folk music, co-edited with Alan Lomax based on the Folklore Archive as part of the Columbia World Library of Folk and Primitive Music series. The accompanying text was written in collaboration with A. L. Lloyd (one LP, Columbia Masterworks label).[22]
- Roumanie. Musique de villages. 1. Olténie: Runc et les villages du Gorj. 2. Moldavie: Fundu Moldovei et la Bucovine. 3. Transylvanie: Drăguş et le Pays de l’Olt (1988) – a three-CD compilation (VDE-Gallo Records label) with a preface by Laurent Aubert and commentary by Speranța Rădulescu.[23]
Construction and classification
Manufacturing
Fluiers of all types are made either by the performers themselves or, more often, by village craftsmen. There are well-known centers of fluier production, such as the village of Hodac in central Transylvania, where in the 1950s, about ninety semi-professional peasant craftsmen produced over 100,000 instruments annually. Most of them sold their products themselves, traveling with bags full of flutes to fairs.[54] In the 1980s, the craftsmen of Hodac were producing over 200,000 fluiers of various types per year, working exclusively in their spare time.[55]
The craftsmen of Hodac make instruments with a fipple primarily from goat willow wood, less often from privet, and by special order, from plum or ash. The raw material is harvested in autumn from fresh, knot-free branches, which are already called "fluiers" right after being cut. Slightly curved branches are heated and straightened.[56]
The work involves a set of traditional tools: a small saw (ferez, firastău), a drill (sfleder), a chisel with a curved tip (cosor), a small carving knife with a sharp triangular blade (cuțitaș), a small half-round chisel (dăltuță), and measuring sticks (măsuri) of various sizes for marking the holes.[57]
The manufacturing process includes several key stages:[58]
- Drilling and drying. A through-hole is drilled in the raw branch, with the internal channel of the tube becoming much narrower at the lower end. The tube is then stripped of its bark and dried, after which the channel is re-drilled to correct for shrinkage.
- Metal casting. Decorative grooves are cut into the head of the fluier, after which it is bound with a molten alloy of two parts lead and one part tin. The molten metal is poured into the grooves, and after it cools, the excess is cut away.
- Creating the fipple. This is the most delicate operation. A small round hole is first cut with a chisel, which is then shaped into a rectangular window – the vrană – with a carving knife. The lower edge of the vrană, the lip (limbă), is sharply beveled.
- Making the plug. A plug (dop) is carved from a willow branch to fit the channel's diameter precisely. A small channel is cut into it, which, together with the wall of the fluier, forms the windway. The plug is inserted, the master tests if the fluier sounds, and then the plug is cut flush with the end of the instrument. The gap between the plug and the lip of the vrană must be "no thicker than a hair."
- Cutting the finger holes. The locations for the holes are marked using a measuring stick or calculated with a string. The holes themselves are cut with a chisel, finished with a carving knife, and smoothed with an awl. Their shape can be oval or round. Masters note that the accuracy of the distances between the holes is more important than their size.
When marking and cutting the finger holes, craftsmen generally do not strive for standardized precision. As a result, the scale of each fluier is individual, and instruments can differ even when made by the same craftsman using the same measurements.[59] Only a few makers produce fluiers with a unified tuning, orienting themselves to a tuning fork. Due to these individual characteristics, performers become accustomed to their own instrument and are generally reluctant to use another's.[54]
Greater attention is paid to decorative finishing: the instruments are adorned with carvings, paintings, metal or bark wrappings, and bone inlays. Such fluiers are valuable examples of folk applied art.[54]
Alongside traditional peasant craftsmanship, modern artisanal (manufactory) production of fluiers also exists in Romania. In contrast to folk masters, who work within the framework of rural life and rely on personal practical experience and inherited techniques, such enterprises combine manual labor with standardized processes to achieve uniform quality and tuning. One example is the Hora factory, which grew out of a small workshop founded in 1951. Its product range includes small fipple fluiers made of sycamore maple.[60] Another well-known manufacturer is Fabrica de caval (Romanian for "The Caval Factory"), which produces cavals, fipple fluiers, double fluiers, and tilincas.[61]
Role in folk culture
The fluier is the most widespread and revered folk instrument in Romania and Moldova. In traditional culture, it is perceived not only as a musical medium but also as a means of emotional expression, comfort, and alleviation of heartache. Skilled fluier players enjoyed special respect and high social status in rural communities. This attitude is largely due to sacral beliefs about the origin and purpose of the instrument, which persist in the popular consciousness. According to one legend, the fluier has a divine origin: "God created the fluier and the sheep, while the devil made the cimpoi[v] and the goat" (Dumnezeu a făcut fluierul şi oaia, în timp ce diavolul a făcut cimpoiul şi capra). Another version states: "When God was on earth, he herded sheep. He made the fluier and hid it under the sheep's wool, and the shepherds found it during shearing" (Dumnezeu când a fost pe pământ a păscut oile. El a făcut fluierul şi l-a pus sub lâna oii, iar la tunsul oilor ciobanii au dat de dânsul).[62] In accordance with this tradition, the fluier is considered a consecrated instrument, which is permitted to be played even during Lent.[63]
Magical properties are attributed to the music of the fluier: its sound is believed to symbolize the connection between man and the cosmos. The performance, especially when accompanied by a guttural drone, is perceived as a form of sacred communication – between man and the divine, between the community and ancestors. Such music is considered more "natural" and unrelated to other musical traditions, especially that of the lăutari.[64]
The magical significance of the fluier is also reflected in traditional poetic texts – for example, in a Transylvanian colinda about a shepherd's funeral:[63]
| My dear fluier – at my head, Dug into the earth, its mouth to the wind When the wind blows – the fluier will sing, When the storm rises – it will start a doina. |
Fluierul meu drag mi-l puneți la cap Înfipt in mormânt, cu dopul la vânt Vântul de-o trăgăna, fluieru-a cânta. Vânt de-o vâjâi, fluieru-o hori. |
Musical repertoire
As autochthonous instruments, fluiers are primarily associated with archaic monophonic genres – shepherd signals, doinas, and bocets. In contrast, later or borrowed instruments, such as the nai, cobza, or violin, are mainly used to perform dance and urban music. These differences are also reflected in performance styles: traditional fluiers are characterized by free rhythm, developed ornamentation, and a variable monophonic texture – from simple monody to primitive heterophony, typical of the oldest layers of folklore. In contrast, for example, violin performance in the folk lăutari tradition is distinguished by a clear rhythm, chordal sound, and the presence of accompaniment, bringing it closer to professional stage music.[2]
The music performed on shepherd's fluiers forms a special and distinctive layer of the traditional instrumental heritage. Its character is largely determined by the construction of the instruments themselves. The richness of the melody depends on the type of instrument and the skill of the performer. The repertoire, born in direct connection with the daily life of shepherds, includes tunes for various purposes.[65]
Ritual and work-related tunes
Some melodies are associated with daily work; their ancient, often magical, significance has been lost over time. Such tunes bear names related to milk processing: Când mulge oile ("When the sheep are milked"), La măsurat ("At the measuring of the milk"), La închegatul laptelui ("At the curdling of the milk"), A caşului ("For the making of caș"[vi]). These melodies are characterized by their simplicity and are built on the repetition of short formulas, having an incantatory character.[66]
Shepherd's road and pasture melodies
An important category consists of the so-called road tunes (ale drumului), which accompanied the movement of flocks – both during transhumance (seasonal migration from mountain pastures to lowlands and back in seasonal pastoralism) and during daily transitions between the sheepfold and pasture. The melody Porneala ("The Departure") was played at the moment the flock set out. A series of accompanying road melodies (șireaguri) includes, for example: Când urcă oile la munte ("When the sheep go up the mountain"), Când pleacă oile din târlă ("When the sheep leave the fold"), and others. The grazing period has its own specific tunes, such as Când pasc oile pe coastă ("When the sheep graze on the slope"). It was believed that the sound of the fluier contributes to the calm demeanor of the flock: upon hearing the instrument, the animals feel the shepherd's presence and graze without anxiety.[67][68]
Both road and pasture melodies are often instrumental versions of the doina. They are characterized by free rhythm, rich ornamentation, long musical phrases, and repeating melodic formulas. Large fluiers are typically used for doinas and slow melodies. This is a special type of bucolic instrumental music, distinguished from vocal doinas by its function. These melodies have a utilitarian purpose: born in close connection with the shepherd's life, they simultaneously facilitate labor and give it an artistic form. The shepherd's environment also gave rise to a true instrumental poem – the musical tale of the shepherd who lost his flock.[67]
The fluier as a means of communication
In Bukovina and northern Moldavia, a limited set of melodies existed that performed a signal function and served as a means of communication among unmarried youth. This repertoire includes, for example, the melodies "When I went to the girls" (Când mergeam la fete) and "When I returned from the girls" (Când veneam de la fete). In the recent past, this practice also had an initiatory character.[69]
Ritual use
In some regions, the fluier is used in funeral rituals. In Bukovina, female laments (bocets) sometimes intertwine with the sound of the large fluier (fluier mare). Invited musicians play doinas and songs of sorrow at the wake during the night; and at the coffin, if custom allows, they perform bocets. When the fluier duplicates the female voice, its melody usually follows with a slight delay, creating a heterophonic effect.[70] In Țara Hațegului (Transylvania), one to four performers played on large fluiers (fluieroaie) at funerals.[71]
The use of the fluier in wedding ceremonies has been preserved in northern Moldavia and Bukovina. The repertoire includes the bride's laments and songs about the dowry (Cântecul miresei, La zestre, Cântecul nevestelor).[69]
The fluier is also part of the calendrical rituals of northern Moldavia and Bukovina – Christmas colindas, theatrical winter performances with masks such as the Capra and the Bear Dance (Jocul ursului, cf. Leading the bear).[69]
Dance accompaniment
In traditional peasant culture, the fluier, along with the cimpoi, was a key instrument for accompanying village dances (Romanian: hora). The situation began to change in the second half of the 19th century. After the abolition of Roma slavery in the Romanian principalities, the function of dance accompaniment gradually passed to professional lăutari musicians, in whose ensembles the violin took the leading role. Consequently, in most regions, the fluier lost its importance as a dance instrument.[70][72] The exception was Bukovina, where the fluier was part of traditional lăutari tarafs.[73][vii] The most famous example is Ilie Cazacu and the Sidor Andronicescu taraf, whose first recordings were made by Constantin Brăiloiu in the 1930s.[74]
Music for listening
Unlike signal or ritual tunes, music for listening (Romanian: muzică de ascultare) has no utilitarian function and is intended primarily for aesthetic appreciation. It is typically performed solo, has a personal, improvisational character, and provides the performer with an opportunity to express their own emotions and skill. This repertoire includes the musical poem "When the shepherd lost his sheep," instrumental ballads, doinas, and lyric songs.[67][75]
In stage folklore
After World War II, in Romania and Moldova, following the Soviet model, the formation of professional folk music orchestras began. Although the fluier traditionally belonged to shepherd culture and was primarily a solo instrument (with the rare exception of Bukovinian lăutari tarafs), it was actively integrated into stage-oriented folklore practice.[76]
A telling example is the career of the Oltenian peasant musician Marin Chisăr, who knew hundreds of local melodies and played the fluier in a traditional manner. In 1941, he was recorded by Constantin Brăiloiu and his colleagues. After the war, Chisăr began performing in Bucharest with large professional folk orchestras. The conductors of these orchestras sought to eliminate or tone down features of authentic performance deemed "unaesthetic." As a result, Chisăr had to abandon the characteristic guttural drone, which he could no longer produce in his later years. The asymmetrical and free rhythms typical of traditional fluier playing were also criticized. Adaptation to academic standards proved challenging: the soloist and the orchestra often fell out of sync due to mismatched tempos.[77]
Other famous performers of this period in Romania include Dumitru Zamfira (Oltenia), Silvestru Lungoci (Bukovina), Mihai Lăcătuș (Bukovina), Ion Lăceanu (Muntenia), and Ion Fărcaș (Transylvania);[16] in the Republic of Moldova – Alexei Botoșanu, Teodor Captari, Liubomir Iorga, Leonid Moșanu, and Petre Zaharia.[78] Their repertoire and performance style generally differed from the archaic pastoral style, but it was these musicians who contributed to the popularization of the fluier as a symbol of the Romanian musical tradition.[16]
Ensembles of fluier players
In the second half of the 20th century, a new phenomenon uncharacteristic of folk tradition appeared in Romania – ensembles of fluier players (Romanian: formațiile de fluierași). Their creation was largely driven by the ideological and propagandistic tasks associated with the state policy of supporting amateur arts.[79]
Since folk culture had no practice of ensemble playing on wind instruments of the same type, the new collectives borrowed principles of choral arrangement. Their performance manner employed unison, canon, distribution of parts by octaves, and techniques based on drone sounds.[79]
The first such ensembles appeared in shepherd communities, which had more bearers of the instrumental tradition; later, the model was adopted by agricultural regions. Despite a mixed reception, over time, the ensembles of fluier players gained the attention of the public and specialists. Eventually, other instruments and small vocal groups began to be added to them, leading to the development of more complex forms – even to experiments in the spirit of "symphonism" for folk wind instruments.[79]