Gulf of Panama mangroves

The Gulf of Panama mangroves (NT1414) extend from the Gulf of Parita past Chame Bay and Panama Bay to the Bay of San Miguel, also including patches on Bahía de Cupica and near Juradó. They cover an area of 900 square miles (2,300 km²).^[2] In the west and the extreme southeast the mangroves fringe areas of Panamanian dry forests. In the center and east they fringe an area of Isthmian–Atlantic moist forests.^[3]

The rivers inland from the ecoregion mostly form on steep slopes. The effects of deforestation, livestock grazing and agriculture are to cause high levels of erosion. The rivers carry large volumes of sediment and nutrients to the mangroves, depositing abundant sand and mud. The sediments prevent coral reefs from growing near the shore, although there are corals beside the islands further offshore. Tides range from 2 to 6 metres (6 ft 7 in to 19 ft 8 in).^[2] Around Panama City the tides are twice daily, averaging about 3.76 metres (12.3 ft), and ranging from 2.2 to 4.97 metres (7 ft 3 in to 16 ft 4 in).^[4]

There is a rainy season from May to December, and a dry season from January to April.^[4] Average annual rainfall ranges from 1,070 millimetres (42 in) in the west to 3,000 millimetres (120 in) in the east. Storms and high winds from the east often damage the mangroves. During periods of high rainfall the mangroves are flooded for long periods. However, for much of the year the mangroves experience a shortage of water. During El Niños the rainfall is much lower.^[2]

The Gulf of Panama mangroves ecoregion is in the neotropical realm, in the mangroves biome.^[2] The Panama Bight Mangroves, a Global ecoregion, contains the Gulf of Panama mangroves, Esmeraldas–Pacific Colombia mangroves, Manabí mangroves and Gulf of Guayaquil–Tumbes mangroves.^[5]

The mangroves are more developed in the east, where rainfall is higher, and in areas where there is most fresh water. The external zones of the mangroves receive estuarine waters directly, while the internal zones are seasonally flooded by the tides. The ecoregion contains small wetlands, which release fresh water slowly during the dry season. In the rainier areas the mangroves transition into freshwater wetlands.^[2] In brackish areas the dominant mangroves are Rhizophora mangle and Rhizophora harrisonii, which reach heights of up to 40 metres (130 ft). In progressively fresher water there are Avicennia germinans and Avicennia bicolor, Laguncularia racemosa, Mora oleifera and Montrichardia arborescens. Other species are Pelliciera rhizophorae and Avicennia tonduzii, which is only found in or near this ecoregion.^[2]

Punta Mala Bay is in Panama Bay just east of the Panama Canal's Pacific entrance.^[6] It holds one of the few areas of mangroves around Panama City. A study published in 2005 found mangroves stands consisting almost entirely of Laguncularia racemosa with many seedlings, which suggested that the forest was rejuvenating. Before construction of a road and water treatment works in 1997–2002 the mangroves had been expanding in the bay. The effect of construction was to wipe out the mangroves in some areas, although in other areas expansion continued. After the end of construction the mangroves began to repopulate bare inter-tidal zones, demonstrating their resilience.^[7]

Satellite photographs show that on the Pearl Islands 965 hectares (2,380 acres) of mangroves were lost in 19748–6 and 248 hectares (610 acres) in 1986–2000. On the Isla del Rey and Isla San José, the two largest islands, over 77% of the loss came from logging and development of agriculture. A study of two sites in May 2006 showed that they seemed to be regenerating. One was dominated by Laguncularia racemosa and the other by Pelliciera rhizophorae.^[8]

The woody stems of the mangroves provide habitats and food for marine fauna such as shellfish and fish.^[7] The mangroves serve as nurseries for fish, shrimps, crabs and invertebrates. Mammals that live in the trees include crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus), mantled howler (Alouatta palliata), northern tamandua (Tamandua mexicana), raccoon (Procyon lotor), silky anteater (Cyclopes didactylus) and white-headed capuchin (Cebus capucinus).^[2] White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are found in Avicennia bicolor and Laguncularia racemosa mangrove forests. Reptiles include black spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura similis), boa constrictor (Boa constrictor) and green iguana (Iguana iguana).^[2]

The Gulf of Panama supports the majority of waterbirds in Panama due in part to the mangrove swamps, as well as the opportunities for foraging in the shrimp ponds and agricultural areas.^[9] Bird species include Amazon kingfisher (Chloroceryle amazona), grey-cowled wood rail (Aramides cajaneus), green kingfisher (Chloroceryle americana), lesser nighthawk (Chordeiles acutipennis), mangrove black hawk (Buteogallus anthracinus subtilis), roseate spoonbill (Platalea ajaja), rufous-browed peppershrike (Cyclarhis gujanensis), rufous-necked wood rail (Aramides axillaris) and yellow-billed cotinga (Carpodectes antoniae).^[2]