Han Kik Ko

By the early nineteenth century, Han Kik Ko was already a significant landlord in East Java.^[1][2] He owned land outside Surabaya, and rented a country estate in Kraton, in the Residency of Pasuruan, consisting of 12 villages and 2,538 residents.^[1][2] His first government appointment was as Kapitein der Chinezen of Pasuruan.^[1][2]

The Kapitein played an important role as a pioneer in the sugar industry in East Java.^[1][2] The region's oldest sugar mill, dating to 1799, was established by the Kapitein on his estate in Pasuruan.^[1][2]

In 1810, after the purchase of Besuki and Panarukan by Majoor Han Chan Piet, the Kapitein followed his elder brother's example by buying the district of Probolinggo.^[1][3][4][5] He agreed to pay one million Spanish dollars in a series of instalments to the government of Herman Willem Daendels, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies during the Interregnum (1806–1815).^[9]

Daendels subsequently promoted the Kapitein to Majoor der Chinezen, as well as Regent of Probolinggo with the Javanese noble title of Tumanggung.^[1][3][5] The new Majoor-Regent had direct authority over 150,000 people; his brother, Majoor Han Chan Piet, ruled the districts of Besuki and Panarukan through allied members of the traditional Javanese bureaucracy, including Muslim members of the Han family of Lasem.^[9]

During Majoor Han Kik Ko's rule new methods of irrigation were implemented, rice cultivation increased, and new crops were introduced.^[1][2] The Majoor-Regent also encouraged Madurese immigration into his territory in order to increase its population.^[1][2]

He was accused of despotism in his rule of Probolinggo;^[1][2] fifty percent of all crops grown in the district was taken as tribute and the rest was purchased compulsorily by the Majoor-Regent for a low price.^[4] There were taxes on many other things, from living people to funerals and buffaloes.^[4]

On 18 May 1813, an uprising broke out – later dubbed Kepruk Cina ('Attack on the Chinese').^[3][4] At the time, Majoor Han Kik Ko was entertaining visiting British dignitaries, all of whom were caught unaware.^[3][4] The Majoor-Regent and some of his guests were killed by the rebels.^[3][4]

The British government of Sir Stamford Raffles, who had succeeded Daendels as Governor-General, repurchased the district from the Majoor-Regent's heirs.^[3][4] In return, three of the latter's sons were given a lifelong usufruct of the district.^[1][2]

The family connection with both Pasuruan and Probolinggo was maintained.^[1][2] Four of the Majoor-Regent's sons were active in the sugar industry in Pasuruan, and left descendants who maintained their prominence in the region.^[1] Han Tjan Gwan, second son of the Majoor-Regent, moved back to Probolinggo and was appointed its Kapitein der Chinezen from 1847 until 1860.^[1]

Descendants of the Majoor's Javanese uncle, Ngabehi Soero Pernollo, also maintained government positions in Probolinggo.^[1][8] The latter's grandson, Raden Soetik (from 1816 until 1818), and great-grandson, Raden Karaman (in 1856), were both appointed Regents of Probolinggo in succession to their Chinese cousin.^[1][8]