Historic Site of Anti-Mongolian Struggle
Fortress remains in Jeju, South Korea
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The Historic Site of Anti-Mongolian Struggle (Korean: 항파두리 항몽 유적), also known as the Historic Site of Anti-Yuan Struggle and the Hangpaduri Hangmong Historic Site, is a protected area in Jeju Province, South Korea, that was once the location of an earthen fortress. This fortress, the Hangpadu/Hangpaduri Fortress (also written as Hangpadu(ri)seong), was built in 1271 by the Sambyeolcho rebels, who opposed the surrender by the Goryeo dynasty ruling Korea to the Yuan dynasty following the Mongol invasions of Korea. Built shortly after the Sambyeolcho took over the island of Jeju, the fortress soon became the capital of the rebellion after the Sambyeolcho were defeated elsewhere. Together with the Hwanhaejangseong coastal wall and various village fortifications, the fortress formed part of a defensive system to protect the island. After the Sambyeolcho forces were defeated by a combined Goryeo-Mongol invasion of 12,000 soldiers in 1273, the site eventually fell into disuse.
1126-1, Goseong-ri, Aewol-eup, Jeju, Jeju-do and others[3]
| Historic Site of Anti-Mongolian Struggle | |
|---|---|
| Native name 제주 항파두리 항몽 유적; 濟州 缸坡頭里 抗蒙 遺蹟 (Korean) | |
The inner fortress from the southeast. | |
| Type | Earthen fortress |
| Location | 50, Hangpaduri-ro, Aewol-eup, Jeju-si, Jeju-do, South Korea[1][2] 1126-1, Goseong-ri, Aewol-eup, Jeju, Jeju-do and others[3] |
| Coordinates | 33°27′9″N 126°24′27″E |
| Area | ~110 ha (270 acres) |
| Elevation | 140–250 metres (460–820 ft) |
| Built | 1271–1272 |
| Built for | Sambyeolcho |
| Governing body | Jeju City |
| Official name | Historic Site of Anti-Mongolian Struggle in Hangpadu-ri, Jeju |
| Designated | April 18, 1997 |
  Location of Historic Site of Anti-Mongolian Struggle in South Korea | |
| Korean name | |
| Hangul | 항파두리 항몽 유적 |
| Hanja | 缸坡頭里 抗蒙 遺蹟 |
| RR | Hangpaduri hangmong yujeok |
| MR | Hangp'aduri hangmong yujŏk |
Hangpadu Fortress was constructed around 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from Jeju's northern coastline, where the coastal lowlands transition into the mountainous interior. The chosen location provided views of important coastal areas, as well as the Jeju Strait and the Korean Peninsula to the north, where any invasions would originate. The specific site where the fortress was built lay between two rivers, which together with the sloped terrain provided natural defenses. The site also had soil conducive to the building of rammed earthen walls, and was positioned near existing population centers. Two layers of defense were built, creating an almost square inner fortress surrounded by 756 metres (2,480 ft) of walls, surrounded by a larger roughly oval area protected by 3.87 kilometres (2.40 mi) of walls. The inner fortress contained important buildings, including the Sambyeolcho headquarters. An additional wall extended from the north of the outer wall to protect two water sources.
Overall, the design of the fortress is similar to others built during the Goryeo era, including Ganghwaseong and Yongjangseong, which were also built to repel Mongol invasion. Many artifacts found at the site are similar to those found on the mainland, and were likely brought to the island by Sambyeolcho forces. Some of the roof tiles found at the site reflect mainland designs, but are locally made, likely indicating that artisans came to the island with the Sambyeolcho. It is likely that roof tile techniques became more common in Jeju due to their use at Hangpaduri.
The site came to national attention in the late 20th century, when South Korean President Park Chung Hee saw it as a potential symbol of patriotism. In 1976, the site was recognized as a historic site by Jeju provincial authorities, and restoration works occurred from 1977 to 1978 that saw some of the outer walls rebuilt and a monument installed. Some excavations took place in the 1990s, and in 1997 the site was designated as National Historic Site No. 396. Sporadic further research followed, and a dedicated research program began in 2010. Today, the site serves educational and recreational purposes, and is sometimes used to host cultural events.
Location
The protected area is around 110 hectares (270 acres),[3][4] of which 867,615 square metres (9,338,930 sq ft) is the designated historic site.[5] The fortress was built inside an oreum[6] around 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the coast[7]: 105 on the western side of the island,[8]: 136 where the coastal lowlands meet the more mountainous interior.[9]: 69 It lies between 140–250 metres (460–820 ft) above sea level.[4][7]: 105 The landscape of the site slopes upwards from the south to the north. On the eastern and western sides of the site were natural streams, Goseongcheon stream and Sowangcheon stream respectively.[3]
The steep northern landscape and the two streams provided natural defenses.[7]: 105 The position on the oreum meant the fortress was higher than the surrounding terrain, and was thus both defensible and provided a view of potential invasion routes,[7]: 106 including naval routes due to its position overlooking the Jeju Strait and Chuja Islands.[8]: 133 On clear days islands surrounding the southern end of the Korean peninsula would also be visible, in the direction of Jindo.[10]: 210 The soil at the site was suitable for creating earthen ramparts.[4] There was also easy access to drinking water, and to wild game.[11]
Existing defensive structures, such as fortress Jejueupseong, were likely seen as too difficult to defend, and having much poorer views of attack from the north.[10]: 209–210 Surrounding the site were six of the sixteen major villages of the island at the time, making it the most populated part of the island.[7]: 107 This meant the location could be easily supplied, and had access to six important ports along the northern coast.[10]: 209
Structure
Hangpadu Fortress was the only earthen fortress constructed on Jeju.[10]: 208 It was a double structure consisting of an inner complex and wall which was in turn surrounded by a larger area enclosed by a long earthen wall. Both walls are thought to have been at least 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall.[3][6] The inner fortress is sometimes referred to as naeseong (내성),[12] while the outer walls are sometimes referred to as (go)toseong ((고)토성).[13][5]
The inner wall forms a rough square of 756 metres (2,480 ft), consisting of an 178 metres (584 ft) northern wall, an 194 metres (636 ft) eastern wall, an 192 metres (630 ft) southern wall, and an 192 metres (630 ft) western wall.[7]: 108 [9]: 68–69 The base of the inner wall contains a row of stones and rammed earth.[7]: 105 The inner fortress is mostly flat, ranging from 160 metres (520 ft) to 165 metres (541 ft) above sea level, with a gentle slope northwards.[9]: 67 A drainage system moved water towards the east.[9]: 74–75
The outer earthen wall was historically recorded as being 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) long,[14]: 332 however modern research has measured it at 3.87 kilometres (2.40 mi).[5][7]: 105 The outer walls follow the slope between the rivers[9]: 67 in a somewhat oval shape. It is thought that there were four outer gates.[13] The outer wall structure can reach up to 10 metres (33 ft) wide and 3 metres (9.8 ft) tall.[5] It is thought to have a stone base built on excavated bedrock, covered with layers of rammed earth.[9]: 70 This process seems similar to the one used at Ganghwaseong, although adjusted for the local topography. For example, adaptations seem to have been made to accommodate different flooding risks due to Hangpaduri being built on a hillside rather than on a mountain ridge.[9]: 71 A semi-circular wall, also earthen, extending from the northern outer wall protected two water sources,[9]: 61–62, 67 [13][15][16] the ongseong (옹성) spring and the gushi (구시) spring. The first was reportedly used only by the generals, while the second was used by the rest of the army.[12]
Up to 17 buildings have been identified within the inner fortress.[9]: 64 The buildings discovered include watchtowers, a roof tile facility, a well,[7]: 105 and a kiln.[9]: 63 The buildings were in the north-west of the inner fortress,[7]: 105 likely directly connected to each other.[9]: 74 One is thought to have served as the building for the Sambyeolcho leaders, and might have been larger than the equivalent in Yongjangseong.[16] This building is sometimes also referred to the palace site, although unlike actual palaces (daegulteo, 대궐터) it was not built for royalty.[12] A watchtower (named 안오름 망대) has been found to the southeast of the fortress, at a high point of the oreum.[7]: 106 [12]
The Jangsumul Spring is in legend the site where general Kim T'ongjŏng's footprint remains after he jumped from the earthen walls. In the legend, it is this landing that caused the spring to run year round, and gave the water medicinal properties. The water is credited with protecting the residents of the nearby Goseongri village from an epidemic. Kim T'ongjŏng escaped the fortress with 70 soldiers to fight a final battle at the Bulgeun Oreum, and committed suicide. In some sources, the jump that caused the spring is recorded as the suicide.[4][17][18][19]
The structure of the fort, including building compacted earthen walls with a stone foundation, and inner and outer walls, is of a similar design to that of other fortresses from the Goryeo dynasty period, such as Ganghwa fortress.[7]: 106 Hangpadu may differ slightly in having stones lining both sides of the inner wall. It is likely that similar civil engineers worked on Ganghwa Fortress, Yongjang Fortress, and Hangpadu Fortress, during the short period where all fell under the control of the Sambyeolcho Rebellion.[7]: 108 Construction elements are also similar to other fortresses built around the same period,[13] such as Gyeongjueupseong[20] and Cheonghaejin.[21]
Artifacts
Many items from the 13th century have been found during excavations.[7]: 106 Bronzeware, celadon, and ironware from the site resemble similar items found at Samyeolcho fortresses elsewhere, such as from Jindo, and so are thought to have been brought to Jeju by Sambyeolcho forces.[14]: 341–342 Some ceramics appear to be from Yuan China.[7]: 109 Iron finds include crockery and armor.[5] Other finds include coins and a stone Gonu board.[7]: 106 Some of these coins were found under walls, suggesting they were deliberately buried there, likely as part of a ritual during construction. The Gonu board is made from Jeju rock, indicating local origin rather than coming with the Samyeolcho.[7]: 109 10 cornerstones (doljjeogwi, 돌쩌귀), or stone hinges, thought to have been located under the fortress' four gates have been found and are displayed at the site.[4][12] It is possible that some artifacts from the site may date to the 15th or 16th centuries, indicating the site was used after the Sambyeolcho Rebellion, but this is unconfirmed.[7]: 109
Roof tiles have been discovered with a number of different designs.[7]: 106 Some may have come from the mainland,[5] and others are thought to have come from surrounding villages.[7]: 109 [9]: 75–76 The roof tiles used in the fortress resemble those used in other Sambyeolcho fortresses, suggesting they were made by artisans who retreated to the island with the Sambyeolcho. This was an early example of roof tile production on Jeju, where they were rare at best prior to the Goryeo period. The techniques to create such tiles likely spread from Hangpadu to the rest of the island, even after the defeat of the Sambyeolcho.[22] The inscriptions on the tiles have provided possible insights into the administrative structure of Jeju during that period.[10]: 196–202
History
The island of Jeju (then known as Tamna) lost its independence to the Goryeo dynasty of the nearby Korean peninsula in the 12th century.[23]: 141 In 1231, the Mongol invasions of Korea began, and fighting continued for decades.[23]: 144 In February 1270, a peace deal was signed between Goryeo and the Mongol Yuan dynasty. Internal opposition within Goryeo led to the Sambyeolcho Rebellion.[1] Sambyeolcho forces first arrived on Jeju in October 1270[14]: 341 led by Lee Mungyeong,[24] landing at Myeongwol (now in Hallim) and Jocheon before defeating Goryeo forces[8]: 131 on November 3. These forces initially based themselves in Jocheon.[10]: 214 It is possible that Jeju was considered a potential area from which a rebellion could be led from an early stage, competing with Jindo for prominence.[7]: 106–107 Jeju had previously been raised as a potential site to relocate the Goryeo capital, then at Ganghwa Island during the 1260s, before their surrender to the Yuan.[25]: 106–107
After the Sambyeolcho were defeated on the island of Jindo in 1271, General Kim T'ongjŏng brought all remaining forces to Jeju, which replaced Jindo as the capital for the remaining 31 months of the rebellion.[7]: 106 [14]: 341 Following this retreat, Hangpadu Fortress was constructed by Kim T'ongjŏng's forces in 1271,[1][3][4] serving both administrative and defensive functions.[14]: 332 Historical records state that both the inner and outer walls were completed by June 29, 1272.[9]: 61 The Hwanhaejangseong coastal walls were also further developed during this time, forming a network of defenses alongside Hangpadu and village fortifications.[7]: 107 (The Hwanhaejangseong is sometimes considered as the outer wall of a defensive system including Hangpadu Fortress.)[9]: 67
For the Yuan dynasty, Jeju was seen as a strategic location for potential military campaigns against Japan and Song China.[23]: 143–144 In 1273, a combined force of 12,000 Goryeo and Yuan soldiers led by Hong Ta-gu and Kim Panggyŏng landed on the island and attacked the fortress, leading to its surrender in April 1273.[1][14]: 332 [24] Jeju then came under Mongol rule.[7]: 118 The Sambyeolcho rebellion and its suppression by Goryeo and Mongol forces was a key historical event strengthening ties between Jeju and the Korean peninsula. Some Sambyeolcho fled to the Ryukyu Islands,[5] possibly bringing their roof tile designs with them.[22]: 112 Some buildings within Hangpadu Fortress may have remained in use until the 15th century.[9]: 64
On September 9, 1976, the remains of the fortress were designated a Jeju historic site.[13][24] Restoration works costing 745 million South Korean won took place from July 21, 1977 to June 1978, alongside the construction of a monument.[1][18] This period was when the government, under Park Chung Hee, was seeking historical sites that would provide national pride to help bolster his regime. Due to its association with military resistance, Hangpadu Fortress was considered to have patriotic symbolism. Park visited three times during the restoration.[5] In 1977, a monument was erected at the site, inscribed with "抗蒙殉義碑" in Park's handwriting.[4] Some of the outer wall was reconstructed during this time.[9]: 64 [19] These restoration efforts focused on speed rather than research.[5][9]: 62
An excavation of a small number of areas, including a well, took place in 1993.[9]: 64 The first proper survey of the entire site took place from October to December in 1996. Before this, most knowledge came only from historical literature.[9]: 62 On April 18, 1997, the site was designated Historic Site No. 396,[3][18] under the name "제주항파두리항몽유적".[7]: 105 Further research commenced after this designation.[9]: 62 Kim Yong-sun, an envoy of the North Korean government, visited in September 2000.[5] A second survey was undertaken in 2002,[9]: 63–64 and subsequent excavations took place in 2003, 2004, and 2009.[9]: 65
A dedicated research program by the Jeju Archaeological Research Institute began in 2010.[5][9]: 62 [15] The 2010 surveys confirmed that both the inner and outer walls were primarily earthen, rather than stone.[9]: 67 A significant excavation of the inner fortress occurred in 2011.[4] Jeju City created a management plan in 2012, which involved investing in research, restoration, and land purchases.[5] As of 2015, there had been nine excavations.[7]: 105 These excavations have unearthed a number of items from the period of construction, including tiles and hinges.[3] The eastern gate was excavated in 2021.[15]
It is not known exactly where the name "Hangpaduri" (항파두리) comes from. Historically, it was sometimes also referred to as "Hangbaduri" (항바두리).[13][26] The theory posits that most likely is that it is an old place-name for the nearby village of Goseongri, perhaps referring to the surrounding terrain.[26] The Hanja for hangpaduseong (항파두성) is "缸坡頭城".[13]
Management
Today, the site of the former fort includes both public land (national and provincial) and private land.[7]: 110–115 The facility is managed by Jeju City.[4] It is managed to preserve the site, provide access, and maintain views of the outer walls and of the ocean from the walls.[7]: 135 The Jeju Archaeological Research Institute has proposed nominating the fortress as a World Heritage Site, perhaps together with Ganghwa Fortress and Yongjang Fortress.[7]: 116–117 The events linking the site to China, Korea, and Japan are viewed as giving it importance to East Asian history rather than solely Korean history.[5]
Within the fortress ruins, an exhibition hall has been built, helping the site to serve educational purposes.[1] The exhibition hall displays artifacts extracted from the site and paintings illustrating the Sambyelcho Rebellion.[3][24] Flowers have been planted in some areas of the site, to facilitate recreation.[17] Some cultural events are held at the site,[17][27] and it is included as part of Jeju Olle Trail 16.[5]