History of Ottawa

Algonquian peoples

Algonquian peoples have lived in the Ottawa Valley since at least 500 CE. Because the region was not suited to agriculture, many Algonquian groups practised fishing, hunting, and gathering. Most migrated seasonally throughout the region, congregating annually in the summer for economic, political, religious, and social activities.^[4] One congregation site for the Algonquin people^[b] was located at Chaudière Falls (known to them as Akikodjiwan), where people commonly met to socialize and trade.^[8]

The Ottawa River (known to the Algonquin as Kitchisibi) was of central importance to the Algonquin people, serving as a site of community and religious ritual. According to Algonquin oral histories, families left mìgwechiwìhiwe (transl. 'tokens of gratitude') around rock carvings scattered along the riverbank to honour their ancestors and the river itself. These oral histories also say that the carvings were sites where manitou could move between worlds, with some helping to guide travellers along the river, among other things.^[9]

Beaver wars

The Algonquin peoples were influential traders—and the Ottawa River an influential trade route.^[16] Under their leader, Tessouat, the Kichesipirini exercised a monopoly on trade along the river, preventing French traders from establishing forts along it. After Tessouat's death, however, Haudenosaunee (known exonymically as Iroquois)^[a] attacks disrupted this monopoly.^[18] This led to the Beaver Wars, which pitted the Algonquins and Wendat (nominally allied with the French) against the Haudenosaunee (nominally allied with the British).^[19] Haudenosaunee raids during this period, along with a number of epidemics, caused many Algonquin and Wendat peoples to flee the valley, seeking refuge in French settlements and in the area around Lac-Saint-Jean.^[16] Several Jesuit missionaries, including Jean de Brébeuf and Charles Lallemant, were also martyred during the conflict.^[20] However, by 1700, the Haudenosaunee had been completely driven from the valley, and the wars ended in 1701 with the Great Peace of Montreal.^[21]

British conquest and American Revolutionary War

In 1756, the Seven Years' War erupted between the rival imperial powers of France and the United Kingdom, as well as their respective allies.^[22] The war spilled over into North America, with British troops conquering Quebec City and Montreal between 1759 and 1760.^[23] New France was placed under military rule.^[24] The primarily Scottish-controlled North West Company quickly took control of the European fur trade in the region and began surveying the Ottawa River.^[25] Meanwhile, the British officially claimed New France (including the area around present-day Ottawa) with the Treaty of Paris in 1763.^[26] Former French territory was consolidated into the Province of Quebec after the Royal Proclamation of 1763.^[27]

The province's European population remained very low until the American Revolutionary War, when displaced British loyalists fled to the province in great numbers.^[28] Between 1780 and 1784, the European population expanded from about 2,000 to about 25,000, with most settling in the southwest area of the province.^[29] After the war, many loyalists were granted free land in the Ottawa Valley.^[30] As tensions between these newly arrived loyalists and established Francophones rose, the Constitutional Act 1791 split the province into primarily Angolphone Upper Canada and primarily Francophone Lower Canada, with part of the boundary between the two defined by the Ottawa River.^[29]

Lower Canada refused to recognize the territorial rights of the First Nations people living along the Ottawa River. They argued that the land north of the river was French territory and had officially become British under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Meanwhile, during councils in 1783 and 1784 in what would become Upper Canada, the British allegedly purchased large sections of the Ottawa Valley (including the territory of the present-day city of Ottawa) from the Algonquins and Haudenosaunee for property along the St. Lawrence River and clothing for one local chief.^[31] However, in practice, Algonquins from around the Lake of Two Mountains still exercised de facto land rights in the area around the eastern Ottawa River. They and their Nipissing allies used the region for hunting and trapping.^[32]

Birth of the timber industry

The Ottawa Valley's rich forests and waterways (which were used to power sawmills) made the region ideal for harvesting timber.^[33] The valley's first sawmill was installed by William Merrick, who founded Merrickville. Later, in 1800, Philemon Wright founded the first major European settlement in the valley near Chaudière Falls: Hull. Wright had hoped to use the land for farming, but timber proved more profitable. By 1806, Wright was selling timber to Quebec City.^[34] Other timber merchants—including Joseph Papineau, David Pattee, and Thomas Mears—soon followed.^[35] They found receptive markets as the British sought sources of timber for naval shipbuilding amidst the Napoleonic Wars and War of 1812.^[36]

Rideau Purchase

At the same time, Algonquin and Nipissing groups consolidated their control over the islands in the Ottawa River, issuing leases and collecting rents in 1802.^[37] In May 1819, the British negotiated with 257 Mississauga people in Kingston to purchase 2.7 million acres of Algonquin-controlled land in the Ottawa Valley—including significant parts of the modern-day National Capital Region. The British negotiators agreed to pay these 257 Mississaugas GBP £642 10s—50s per person—for the land. They also sent the Mississauga negotiators blankets, hats, jewellery, and telescopes. This came to be known as the Rideau Purchase.^[38] The Algonquin peoples who used the land were not consulted about the purchase and never officially ceded their rights to it.^[39] During the 1820s, conflicts over hunting rights along the river arose between these Algonquins and their Nipissing allies and encroaching Haudenosaunee and Abenaki groups. Many of these conflicts were the subject of petitions to the British government, which refused to grant any group hunting rights in the region.^[37]

Background to construction

The War of 1812 caused a naval arms race between Britain and the United States. Most of the war's naval activity took place in the Great Lakes, and an American attempt to seize control of the St. Lawrence River via Montreal failed. However, after the fighting ended, it was reported to Major General Frederick Philipse Robinson that the Americans had developed a more detailed plan to seize control of the St. Lawrence via Kingston or Montreal if the war continued.^[40]

To protect against such an attack in the future, the British made plans to revive an abandoned French project to build a canal around the Lachine Rapids, as well as to construct a new canal connecting Kingston and Montreal. Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, supported the construction of a canal, and after several initial surveys, George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie, bought the headland for the planned Kingston-Montreal canal in 1823. However, funding for the project was not forthcoming from Upper Canada or Lower Canada. As a result, Wellington authorized the canal's construction as a military project in 1826.^[41]

Founding of Bytown

Lieutenant Colonel John By of the Royal Engineers was assigned to construct the canal.^[42] Bytown, the predecessor to the modern city of Ottawa, was founded to support the British Board of Ordnance in 1826. The Board of Ordnance was tasked with maintaining the "lands, depots and forts required for the defence of the realm and its overseas possessions" and supplying munitions to the British Army and Royal Navy.^[43] The military engineers building the canal were stationed in Bytown, where they drew up plans and coordinated with private contractors, with each contractor assigned a section of the canal.^[44] Many of these contractors were paid in Mexican silver obtained by the Royal Navy as part of a deal to transport funds to the King of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars.^[45] Bytown's land was parcelled off in 1827, with By giving Bank, Rideau, Sparks, Sussex, and York Streets their names.^[46]

Canal construction

In April, By put out press advertisements offering free provisions and housing to stonemasons and miners willing to work on the canal.^[47] The job market was heavily saturated at the time due to a surplus of migrant labour from England and Lower Canada.^[48] As a result, many civilian workers were drawn to the project. The workforce varied from between 2,000 to 5,000 at any given time—a combination of primarily English, French, Irish, and Scottish workers. These were supplemented by members of the Royal Sappers and Miners.^[47]

The Rideau Canal was primarily constructed by hand—sometimes with the use of animals for hauling tasks but without significant aid from mechanical tools. Earth was generally cleared using pickaxes and shovels and removed from the site using wheelbarrows and horse-drawn carts. Most workers worked 16-hour days, six days a week, and the majority lived in shanty towns around Bytown and Kingston. Conditions in these towns varied considerably depending on the contractor.^[49] However, malaria outbreaks were common throughout construction—as were cholera, dysentery, influenza, smallpox, tuberculosis, and typhoid fever.^[50] The use of gunpowder for excavation also proved dangerous, with several workers being killed in explosions.^[51] Despite these difficulties, the canal was completed in 1832, with By and his family travelling its length by boat that May.^[52]

Shiners' War

After the canal's completion, a group of newly unemployed Irish workers led by Peter Aylen founded a gang called the Shiners^[d] to drive skilled French Canadian workers out of the labour market. Aylen's Shiners employed violent tactics against their enemies, launching raids on French Canadian-owned timberlands, destroying watercraft, attacking civilians, blowing up homes, burning stables, and poisoning wells, among other things.^[54] Many people were driven out of Bytown.^[55] In response, By employed members of the Royal Sappers and Miners to act as an impromptu "street patrol".^[56] Later that year, Aylen sold his assets in the area and moved to Aylmer, Quebec.^[55]

Continued growth

After the passage of the 1843 Ordnance Vetting Act, which overturned an earlier provision that prevented people from buying property and requiring them to rent from the Board of Ordnance, the population grew. A new class of primarily Irish and French Canadian landowners emerged. Several new institutions were founded, including a hospital and the College of Bytown (the present-day University of Ottawa).^[61] Bytown officially incorporated on January 1, 1850.^[62]

The logging industry also expanded, with the Ottawa Valley producing more raw timber than the rest of Canada combined by the 1840s.^[63] In 1846, overproduction led to a market crash, but the industry largely recovered by 1850.^[64] As the city and surrounding logging industry grew, many Algonquins were displaced from their traditional lands. Throughout the 1840s, they filed petitions for land to be set aside for them in the present-day area of Gatineau. In 1851, the government of Lower Canada created two reserves: one at Maniwaki and one near Témiscaming.^[65]

Stony Monday Riot

In 1849, the Parliament of the Province of Canada passed the Rebellion Losses Bill, which compensated property owners for losses incurred during the Lower Canada Rebellion. This included those who had supported the rebellion, provided they had not been convicted of any crimes or left the country. Many conservative Tories opposed the bill, arguing that it would benefit insurrectionary patriotes who rebelled against the government: "payment for disloyalty". They also viewed it as evidence of their declining power amidst the rise of responsible government. In response, rioting Tories in Montreal burned down the Parliament Buildings in Montreal.^[66] Believing the city to be unsafe, James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin and governor general of Canada, began searching for a new capital.^[67]

As part of his search, Elgin visited Bytown in September.^[67] Demographically, Bytown was split between Tories, who were largely upper-class and lived in Upper Town; and Reformers, who were largely working-class and lived in Lower Town. The Reformers called for a public welcoming meeting for Elgin in the town square. However, Tories like Mayor Robert Hervey opposed the meeting. Tories from the surrounding region flooded into the city, many armed, and attempted to disrupt the meeting. A firefight broke out, killing one and injuring 24.^[68] Hervey also deputized members of the Royal Canadian Rifle Regiment to arrest Reformers. Two days later, after a standoff between Tories and Reformers at Sappers Bridge (at the site of present-day Plaza Bridge), the Reformers stood down.^[69]

Ultimately, Elgin decided to delay his visit to Bytown.^[70] In October, on the Executive Council of the Province of Canada's advice, Parliament passed a bill instituting a system whereby the capital would systematically cycle between Toronto and Quebec City for periods of four years each.^[71] However, Henry Grey, 3rd Earl Grey and Secretary of State for the Colonies, noted that the arrangement lacked "an air of permanence" and that it would be "difficult to manage".^[72]

Becoming Ottawa

Bytown's name was a point of contention, with various proposals to change it over the years.^[73] In 1853, the town council decided that it was hindering the town's selection as the capital and that it would need to be changed. Conversations took place in 1854, the bicentenary of an Odawa trade mission to Montreal. In honour of this anniversary, the city adopted the standard English spelling of the name of the Ottawa River and was renamed Ottawa. The name change became official on January 1, 1855.^[74] In the ensuing celebrations, Mayor Henry J. Friel remarked:

To this common centre all parties must turn ere long; the finger of destiny points hitherward, and I doubt not that metropolitan honours await the City just ushered into existence.^[75]

Becoming capital

Debate over the capital's location continued throughout the mid-1850s, with the alternating system proving unpopular for many MPs because of the distance between the capitals. Moving the capital was also expensive, costing the government £71,726 in 1855 (equivalent to £6,700,000 in 2025). When parliamentary proceedings throughout 1856 failed to produce a decisive answer to the problem, the issue was referred to Queen Victoria for review.^[76]

Each of the cities in contention sent memoranda to the Colonial Office, with Ottawa's memorandum arguing that its central location made it an ideal candidate.^[77] Other evaluations were submitted by Governor General Edmund Walker Head, who argued for Ottawa, as well as two military evaluations that favoured Quebec City. After assessing the memoranda, the Colonial Office recommended Ottawa as the capital. This recommendation was then approved by the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and the Queen.^[78] Head received word of the decision on December 31, 1857.^[79]

The Queen's decision caused considerable controversy, with several MPs tabling resolutions opposing it. Despite opposition from Joint Premier^[e] John A. Macdonald, these resolutions passed with support from Opposition Leader George Brown. This caused the Macdonald-Cartier ministry to resign.^[81] In its place, a Brown-Dorion ministry was appointed, but this ministry immediately failed a confidence vote, and the Macdonald-Cartier ministry returned to power. This ministry stated that it would support the Queen's decision, and after much debate, a second motion opposing Ottawa was defeated on February 10, 1859.^[82]

Constructing Parliament

In May, Railway Inspector and Deputy Public Works Commissioner Samuel Keefer invited architects to submit designs for Parliament Hill.^[83] The final designs included the Centre Block designed by Thomas Fuller and Chilion Jones and the East and West Blocks designed by Thomas Stent and Augustus Laver.^[84] Workers began arriving in 1859 to work on the construction of the buildings and in the adjacent brickyards, lumberyards and quarries (the buildings were constructed primarily from local Nepean sandstone).^[85]

The cornerstone was laid by Prince Edward of Wales in September 1860.^[86] Initial construction work met with a number of challenges, including budget shortfalls, shortages caused by the sudden increase in population, and inflation.^[87] A strike in May 1860 led to an increase in worker pay, but work hours remained long and safety provisions were inadequate, leading to at least one death.^[88] Despite this, by 1861, Ottawa's population had grown from 7,760 in 1851 to 14,669, more than doubling in size as manual labourers, tradespeople, and civil servants moved to the new capital.^[89]

Funds completely ran out in 1862, leading to a pause in construction.^[90] This resulted in widespread unemployment and a wave of merchant bankruptcies.^[91] Construction resumed in 1863, but working conditions remained poor.^[92] In response—and despite laws that outlawed unions and banned workers from leaving employment without permission—the stoneworkers formed a union and staged several walkouts in 1864. Soon after, a number of other unions were formed, including the Ottawa Typographical Society.^[93]

The legislature officially opened in 1866, though construction continued until 1876.^[94] In March 1867, the Constitution Act united the Province of Canada with the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia to form the Dominion of Canada. The act went into effect on July 1 in what is now called Canadian Confederation.^[95] While Parliament Hill was not fully completed, the Fathers of Confederation agreed to keep Ottawa as the new dominion's capital.^[96]

Transforming city

Despite the city's status as the capital, the government presence remained relatively small, confined primarily to Parliament Hill and Rideau Hall, which had served as the governor general's mansion since 1866.^[97] The city largely grew alongside commercial interests.^[98] These were dominated by the timber and sawmilling industries, which continued to displace Algonquin people in the region.^[99] Many Algonquins were advised to go either to the Maniwaki or Golden Lake Reserve—with the latter being established in 1873.^[100]

The city's first streetcars appeared in 1870. This service, operated by the Ottawa City Passenger Railway Company (OCPR), proved popular, carrying 273,000 passengers in its first year of operation.^[101] Organized labour also grew in power after the passage of the 1872 Trade Union Act, which led to the establishment of several new trade unions and a labour council.^[102] In 1873, however, the failure of the American Jay Cooke & Company bank and ensuing Panic of 1873 caused a global depression.^[103] The effects of the depression were felt in Canada, which experienced high levels of unemployment nationwide.^[104] The labor movement declined, and the OCPR's income was halved in 1874.^[105]

By 1879, the economy had largely recovered.^[106] Sawmilling subsequently reached its peak production during the 1880s with the introduction of bandsaws. The lumber processed at these mills was stored in piling yards throughout the National Capital Region—some awaiting sale and some awaiting further processing. While Ontario lumber was previously been exported primarily to Britain, by the 1880s, it was being shipped in large quantities to the United States, South America, and the West Indies as well. However, as the region's forests were depleted, the industry declined and production dropped throughout the late 1880s and 1890s.^[107] In response, many mill owners shifted to producing other wood-based commodities like paper and pulp.^[108]

At the same time, the Knights of Labor tried to organize the lumber mills in the Ottawa-Hull area, starting a major strike in 1891 after falling lumber prices caused mill owners to cut wages. Over 2,400 workers participated in the strike—possibly the largest work stoppage in Canadian history at the time, per David Lee. Ultimately, the mills rescinded the wage cut, and some smaller mills agreed to institute a ten-hour working day.^[109] The Knights continued to organize lumber workers in Ottawa after the strike, creating a lumberworkers' local with 2,000 members and winning a ten-hour working day for all of its members in 1895.^[110]

1900 fire

On April 26, 1900, at approximately 10:30 a.m, a small fire—likely caused by a defective chimney—broke out at the intersection of modern-day St. Redempteur and Vaudreuil streets in Hull. Driven by strong winds, the fire quickly spread throughout the city and crossed over to Ottawa at around 1:00 p.m, igniting lumberyards belonging to mill owners John Rudolphus Booth and Henry Franklin Bronson. From there, it spread to the industrial Chaudière district, destroying several power plants and other structures before continuing to the Rochesterville district. It continued to burn into the evening, finally subsiding around midnight April 27.^[111] A total of 7 people died, and over 1,900 buildings in Ottawa were destroyed, leaving between 8,000 and 14,000 people without homes.^[f][112]

The fire left central Ottawa largely unaffected, but almost all of its lumberyards were completely destroyed.^[113] While overall output in the valley remained high, the sawmilling industry began to decline after the fire as investors shifted production towards commodities like paper and pulp.^[114] Relief efforts, which provided temporary shelter to those displaced, were managed by a relief committee composed of aldermen, merchants, and religious leaders.^[115] Meanwhile, politicians, reformers, and local press organs argued that the destroyed sections of the city should be modernized to better reflect the importance of the capital, manage the displaced population, and prevent another disaster.^[116]

Panorama of the fire, which destroyed over 1,900 Ottawa buildings and left between 8,000 and 14,000 people without homes

Todd Plan

The Ottawa Improvement Commission (OIC) was founded in 1899 with the aim of improving the city into a fitting capital by purchasing land and maintaining driveways, parks, and streets. In 1903, the OIC commissioned landscape architect Frederick Todd to create a masterplan for the city: the Todd Plan.^[117] The Todd plan discussed the organization of Ottawa's park system—sketching out the plans for Gatineau Park, recommending the expansion of Rockcliffe Park, and suggesting the establishment of an interconnected web of suburban parks..^[118] While it was not implemented due to budgetary and political constraints, this was the city's first official planning document.^[119]

Typhoid epidemics

In 1911, the city was struck by a typhoid epidemic caused by infected water from an emergency valve in Nepean Bay. Hundreds of new cases were reported in February, and by March, nearly 1,000 people were infected. Contagious disease was already common in many of the poorer parts of the city, but as the typhoid epidemic spread to middle- and upper-class districts, public health officials took notice. Reports by Ontario Health Officer J. W. McCullough and Committee of Conservation medical advisor Charles A. Hodgetts determined that the outbreak was caused by the civic authorities' failure to treat the water with hypochlorite. In addition, public health officials were stretched thin. As a result, most of the city's plumbing did not meet municipal standards.^[120]

This first epidemic, which killed 83 people, began to abate in March.^[121] However, despite the installation of a new intake pipe, the city continued to draw about 8% of its water from the old contaminated intake pipe. Bacterial testing two weeks after the pipe's installation showed signs of contamination, but the matter was left unexamined despite warnings from food inspector J. B. Hollingsworth. As a result, in June 1912, another epidemic broke out. This epidemic continued into September, forcing businesses to shut down during the busy summer season. In all, by the time it subsided in September, almost 1,400 people had been infected.^[122] 91 people died—for a total of 174 killed between the two epidemics.^[121]

World War I

Mobilization

When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany, entering World War I, Canada was also drawn into the conflict.^[123] Soon after, Ottawans started holding recruitment parties across the city. Within six months, 1,200 men from Ottawa were drafted to serve in the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions.^[124] In Europe, these divisions encountered poor facilities and supply bottlenecks. They also struggled under the leadership of Minister of Militia and Defence Sam Hughes, who insisted that they use Canadian-made Ross rifles known for jamming on the battlefield.^[125]

By 1915, recruitment slowed, with only 256 men recruited for the 38th Battalion in January 1915. Still, beginning in 1915, several new military units composed of Ottawa men were formed, including the Princess Louise Dragoon Guards and the 77th, 207th, 224th, 230th, and 238th Battalions. The federal government also designated several blocks of buildings for use as military offices between 1915 and 1916.^[126]

1916 Parliament fire

See also: Centre Block § Great fire

In the evening of February 3, 1916, while Canada was at war, a fire broke out in the reading room of the Centre Block of Parliament. Once the fire ignited the papers in the room, it spread quickly.^[127] Prime Minister Robert Borden and a small group of MPs who were in session at the time were warned of the fire and evacuated as smoke entered the chamber. While firefighters arrived on the scene swiftly, flames completely engulfed the building by 10:00 p.m, and the tower's bell fell some time before midnight. At 1:21 a.m. on February 4, the central tower collapsed in its entirely.^[128] Seven people died in the fire.^[129]

In the aftermath of the fire, many suspected that it was the work of German saboteurs.^[128] Local authorities interrogated people with German-sounding surnames, with a man named Charles Sloney being arrested in Windsor, Ontario. The evidence against him included an alleged "foreign accent" and a postcard of Parliament that he was carrying. He was ultimately released.^[127] A Royal Commission was established to investigate the cause of the fire. Explanations explored by the commission included arson, faulty electrical wiring, and an improperly discarded cigar or cigarette, but its findings were inconclusive.^[130]

Interwar period

The fighting of the First World War ended with the signing of an armistice on November 11, 1918. Canadians began to return home in 1919.^[136] Returning soldiers were met with parades in Ottawa.^[137] However, at the time of their return, Canada was experiencing a housing shortage caused by inflation, scarce resources, and the unwillingness of businesses to invest in housing projects during wartime. Many feared social unrest as soldiers returning from the front met with this dearth of available housing.^[138]

In response to this shortage, the Ottawa Committee of Conservation apportioned CAD $2 million to the city for housing construction.^[139] They also tapped Thomas Adams, an advocate for the garden city movement,^[i] to prepare a report on the housing crisis in the city.^[141] This report led to the development of the Lindenlea neighbourhood on an area purchased by the Ottawa Housing Commission for $66,000.^[142]

The postwar period also saw changes in the city's transit patterns. In 1919, 500 workers for the Ottawa Electric Railway (OER, the successor to the OCPR) struck amidst rising inflation and its converse: falling real wages.^[j][143] This strike led to the proliferation of unlicensed "jitney" taxis and a rise in automobile use.^[144] During the 1920s, automobile use rose even further. This led to a decrease in the cost-effectiveness and timeliness of the electric railway.^[k] Motorized buses also began to compete with electric streetcars as a form of public transit. In 1924, the OER agreed to a new franchise with the city that saw decreasing fares^[l] and an investment of $3 million into the transit system by the OER—some of which went to modernizing its fleet. In return, it was exempted from municipal takeover and permitted to operate a bus service, among other things.^[147]

Federal District Commission

After the end of the war, city planner Noulan Cauchon advocated for the construction of a war memorial at Connaught Place (as it was known at the time). These plans stalled until 1925, when the Ministry of Public Works, with the support of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, issued a design competition for a war memorial on the site.^[148]

King, who was interested in city planning, founded the Federal District Commission (FDC) to replace the OIC in 1927. Under the direction of businessman Thomas Ahearn, the FDC took on several city improvement projects, including the construction of the Ontario half of the Champlain Bridge, the expansion of Elgin Street, and the development of the newly renamed Confederation Square—including the National War Memorial—though construction would not begin until the 1930s.^[149]

World War II

Mobilization

On September 3, 1939, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany after its invasion of Poland. Canada followed suit on September 10.^[163] That year, a training centre for the Women's Royal Canadian Naval Service was temporarily established at the home of industrialist Ambrose O'Brien before moving to Galt. A basic training centre for soldiers and medical personnel was also established in Lansdowne Park in 1940. The Ottawa-based Governor General's Foot Guards, Cameron Highlanders, and Princess Louise Dragoon Guards arrived in Europe in 1940.^[164]

The population of civil servants in the city tripled in the following six years—mostly temporary workers and military personnel.^[165] Many buildings were constructed or appropriated for their use, including the Central Experimental Farm, which was used to transmit radio messages to Royal Navy and Royal Canadian Navy ships in the Atlantic. Many of these messages were then sent to the home of businessman Louis Baker on Laurier Street, where the National Research Council Canada's Examination Unit was headquartered.^[166]

Postwar period

Germany surrendered to the Allies on May 8, and Japan surrendered on August 14, ending the war.^[170] Many of the government buildings constructed during wartime were demolished.^[171] The civil service also briefly became smaller, though by 1951 it was again growing rapidly. Industrial activity in Ottawa proper declined, with much of it moving to Gatineau. Meanwhile, the service industry grew—a change partially fueled by women's entry into the workforce.^[172] Women also worked in the civil service despite discrimination, and the first female mayor of a major Canadian city, Charlotte Whitton, took office in Ottawa in 1951 after the death of her predecessor, Grenville Goodwin.^[173]

Social movements

As capital of Canada, Ottawa became a staging ground for protests and social activism during the mid-twentieth century. For example, in March 1954, members of the Negro Citizenship Association arrived in Ottawa to protest provisions of the Immigration Act of 1923 that they viewed as racially discriminatory—as at the time, unrestricted immigration to Canada from other nations within the British Commonwealth was limited to white people.^[184] Led by civil rights activist Donald Willard Moore and consisting primarily of Black Pullman porters, this delegation of 35 met with Minister of Citizenship and Immigration Walter Edward Harris.^[185] While the delegation did not yield immediate results, the government introduced the West Indian Domestic Scheme in 1955, which allowed a limited number of people from Jamaica and Barbados to enter the country. Then, in 1962, the government dropped race and nationality restrictions on immigration from Commonwealth countries.^[186]

The 1960s saw the beginning of the Quiet Revolution in Quebec and the attendant rise of French Canadian nationalism in Canada, with French language preservation as a centrepiece of the movement.^[187] Before this, attempts had been made to introduce bilingualism to Ottawa, including the incorporation of English and French skills into the civil service merit system in 1956. As the Quiet Revolution progressed and many French Canadians in Ottawa transitioned from blue- to white-collar professions, bilingual checks were introduced, and French was recognized as one of the official languages of the civil service. On a municipal level, the city council became an officially bilingual institution in 1972.^[188]

There were also major feminist and LGBTQ protests in the early 1970s. In April 1970, an "Abortion Caravan" made up of feminist organizations across the country travelled to Ottawa demanding free access to abortion, which was only available for certain medical reasons under Canadian law. When they arrived in Ottawa, the women chained themselves to chairs in the House of Commons gallery, causing the chamber to temporarily adjourn.^[189] Meanwhile, the "We Demand" rally, organized by the organization Toronto Gay Action in August 1971, was one of the largest LGBTQ protests held in the country at the time it was held.^[190] This rally inspired the foundation of Gays of Ottawa, the city's first major LGTBQ advocacy group, in September of that year.^[191]

In September 1974, 150 First Nations activists arrived in Ottawa for the Native People's Caravan, which arrived on the day of the opening of parliament. Responding to a Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) rendition of "God Save the Queen" with the "AIM Song", they demanded increased accountability from the Indian Affairs Department, funds for Indigenous communities and education, improved healthcare, and recognition of treaty rights for First Nations people regardless of status. Protesters breached the barricade at the base of Parliament's stairs^[q] before being suppressed by RCMP riot police—the first time riot police were used against protesters on Parliament Hill.^[193]

Urban expansion and intensification

Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton

Main article: Regional Municipality of Ottawa–Carleton

In 1968, Parliament passed the Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton (RMOC) Act, which created a regional super-government consisting of Ottawa and several surrounding governments, including Carleton County and the city of Eastview (now Vanier).^[194] The RMOC, which officially came into being in 1969, was managed by a council of 31 people, each of whom was a member of one of the constituent municipalities' councils.^[195]

At the time, many members of the public argued that local governments should consult residents before making planning decisions, and during 1969, the RMOC commissioned several studies to solicit public feedback.^[196] After considerable debate, in 1974, the RMOC adopted a plan focused on developing public transit routes throughout the city (including the Transitway, which opened in stages between 1983 and 1996) and land in the Kanata-Glencairn region (which would be given priority), the Orleans-Queenswood Heights region, and the Carlsbad Springs region, as well as in the region south of the city.^[197]

Contemporary Ottawa

Amalgamation

In 1999, the Ontario provincial government under Mike Harris gave the RMOC 90 days to develop a restructuring solution that would improve services, lower taxes, reduce the number of local politicians, and increase accountability for those politicians that remained.^[206] After being presented with several options, the provincial government opted to annex the independent governments of the RMOC into Ottawa proper. A transition board of seven members was appointed to manage this amalgamation, which officially took place in January 2001 despite opposition from political leaders from some of the amalgamated cities.^[207]

The amalgamation caused the city to experience short-term budget shortfalls due to the costs of restructuring and increased labour costs, as wage rates were often adapted from those of the city with the highest wages.^[208] Taxes did not decrease as anticipated, and budget shortfalls continued in subsequent years. This has resulted in a more polarized electorate, as residents of the urban core fear service cuts while many residents of the suburbs fear tax increases.^[209]

Ottawa 20/20

During the late 1990s, the municipality projected that the city's population would grow by about 300,000 by 2021. Anticipating this projected increase, city planners turned their attention to creating a more robust transit system to accommodate the growing population.^[210] In 1999, the city approved $24 million in funds for the construction of a train line with service between Bayview and Greenboro and a stop near Carleton University.^[211] The line opened in October 2001, going $2.5 million over-budget.^[212] Rides were initially free, with an average of 6,000 trips a day. When fares were introduced, ridership decreased to about 4,500 trips per day.^[213]

After a "smart growth" conference in 2001 that aimed to address the projected population increase, the municipality released its "Ottawa 20/20" master plan.^[214] This plan called for the development of city infrastructure and human services, arts and heritage preservation, ecological sustainability, and economic growth.^[215]

Light rail

In accordance with the Ottawa 20/20 plan, the federal and provincial governments pledged $200 million for a proposed north-south light rail line between downtown and Barrhaven in 2004 but withdrew it in 2006, leading to the project's cancellation in 2007.^[216] In 2012, the city council approved another light rail project—this one a line between Tunney's Pasture and Blair.^[217] The line was to be managed by the Rideau Transit Group (RTG), a private consortium, with funding from the federal and provincial governments. Construction began in 2013, and the line opened in 2019 after numerous delays and the opening of a number of sinkholes in 2016.^[218]

In 2020, the city issued a default notice to the RTG. The notice alleged that the consortium misrepresented its ability to construct and maintain the line, citing delays caused by damaged train equipment, inadequate heating, regular train shortages, and safety incidents.^[219] There was also a sewer leak in the line's tunnels in February, creating a smell like "rotten eggs" in some areas of the line.^[220] In 2021, it shut down for 54 consecutive days, prompting OC Transpo to offer fare-free travel for a month.^[221]

COVID-19 pandemic

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic began with the emergence of SARS-CoV-2—first discovered in Wuhan, China, in 2019.^[222] The first case in Canada was confirmed in January 2020 and the first case in Ottawa was confirmed in March.^[223] That month, Ontario Premier Doug Ford ordered all non-essential businesses and schools to close.^[224] The first death in Ottawa was reported on March 25, prompting Mayor Jim Watson to declare a state of emergency.^[225] Unemployment rose sharply throughout the country, particularly for people who worked in close proximity with others.^[226] The first vaccines for COVID-19 were released in stages in Ottawa throughout the spring of 2021.^[227] By March 2023, 90,356 cases had been reported in Ottawa with 1,025 deaths.^[228]

2022 convoy protest

Main article: Canada convoy protest

In January 2022, in response to a federal mandate that required cross-border truckers to be vaccinated, convoys from around the country began travelling across Canada towards Ottawa, arriving on the 29th and occupying the downtown core for over three weeks.^[229] They organized primarily on social media, with organizers including far-right activists Benjamin Dichter, James Bauder, Pat King, and Tamara Lich.^[230] The occupiers argued that they represented working-class Canadians betrayed by the federal government. Many were also motivated by Islamophobic and white nationalist ideologies, as well as conspiracy narratives.^[231]

Occupiers largely avoided acts of physical violence, but they did barricade major intersections, clutter the streets with fuel containers, harass local residents, set off fireworks, and fill the streets with the sounds of car horns, revving engines, air horns, train horns and loud music—depriving many of sleep.^[232] The Ottawa Police Service initially took a cautious approach to the protesters, avoiding confrontations and the removal of people or vehicles. On February 14, the federal government invoked the Emergencies Act, granting it additional law enforcement powers. On February 18, police began an operation to push the protesters out of the city. Many vehicles were towed, and police presence increased with assistance from the RCMP. Arrests continued throughout the week, and by February 23, the emergency declaration was rescinded.^[233]