Hongwu era

After the establishment of the Ming dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor immediately focused on rebuilding the state's infrastructure. He spearheaded the construction of Nanjing as the new capital, with thousands of laborers working to build a 48-kilometre-long (30 mi) city wall, as well as the imperial palace and government buildings.^[7]

The government also prioritized the country's economy, particularly by addressing issues of land ownership. The Emperor ensured that peasants and large landowners who had acquired land during the wars would retain ownership, provided they cultivated it. As arable land was scarce, the government granted three-year tax exemptions to farmers who brought uncultivated land under cultivation. This policy led to the resettlement of deserted areas around the northern cities by the third year of the Hongwu era. Additionally, the government encouraged refugees and inhabitants of densely populated regions to relocate to vacant lands by granting them various concessions. To increase the labor force, the Emperor abolished slavery (allowing only members of the imperial family to own slaves), reduced the number of monks, prohibited the buying and selling of free people, and banned the slave trade.^[8]

At the same time as expanding the state land fund and encouraging the growth of the labor force, the Hongwu Emperor sought to establish accurate and comprehensive records of land and subjects. As early as the year following the founding of the dynasty, an imperial decree was issued ordering all subjects to register in official registers. In 1370, the first census was carried out, aimed not only at recording the entire population but also at determining the property holdings of each household. In 1381, the registration system was further refined, improving the procedures for tax collection and the enforcement of labor obligations.^[8]

In addition to reclaiming abandoned land, the early years of the Ming dynasty also saw efforts to restore irrigation systems. The Hongwu Emperor issued a decree for local officials to report any requests or concerns from the population regarding the repair or construction of irrigation works. In 1394, a special decree was issued for the Ministry of Works to ensure that canals and dams were properly maintained in preparation for droughts or heavy rains. Graduates of state schools and technical specialists were also sent out to supervise flood-control projects across the country. In the winter of 1395, a total of 40,987 dikes and drainage canals were constructed throughout the empire.^[8]

While foreign trade was allowed with official approval, it was not encouraged in Confucian society and was seen as an unworthy occupation. As a result, the Hongwu Emperor's government sought to restrict it to the exchange of gifts with foreign envoys.^[9]

At the outset of Ming rule, its administrative structure closely resembled that of the Tang and Song dynasties from the 7th to 12th centuries, with some minor adjustments from the Yuan era. However, this system resulted in the emperor being distanced from direct control and did not meet the expectations of the Hongwu Emperor. As a result, he initiated a significant overhaul of the administrative system, with the main goal of centralizing power and increasing the emperor's personal authority. The first step was to reform local administration, followed by the central institutions and the highest military command.^[10]

In 1380, Chancellor Hu Weiyong was arrested on suspicion of involvement in a conspiracy against the Emperor. As a result, his office and its subordinate secretariat were abolished, and all executive power was transferred to the Emperor.^[11][12] In order to prevent any further attempts at overthrow by ministers or subjects, the Emperor established the Embroidered Uniform Guard, a secret police force made up of soldiers from his personal guard. Throughout the Hongwu era, numerous purges were carried out among officials and the general population, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of people. The Embroidered Uniform Guard was largely responsible for these deaths.^[11][13]

Although the Hongwu Emperor was a Confucian, he had a strong suspicion towards the scholar-official class and was not afraid to use physical punishment against them for their wrongdoings.^[14] In 1373, he eliminated the civil service examinations after 120 newly awarded jinshi degree holders (the highest degree, given to those who passed the palace examination) were found to only be capable of reciting memorized phrases.^[15][16] The examinations were later reinstated in 1384,^[16] but the chief examiner was executed when it was discovered that he had only given the jinshi degree to candidates from the southern region.^[15]

In 1364, the Ming dynasty began work on compiling a new Confucian legal code, known as the Great Ming Code. This code was largely based on the older Tang Code of 653. The initial version was approved in 1367, and the final version was adopted in 1397. Although it was supplemented with additional provisions, it remained unchanged until the fall of the dynasty.^[17]

During the Hongwu era, the primary focus of the Ming army was to defend against the Mongol threat. They had some success in campaigns against the Mongols until 1374, and again in 1378–1381 and 1387–1388.^[18] To reorganize the army, the Hongwu Emperor implemented the weisuo system, which was similar to the Tang dynasty's fubing system. This system allocated land to soldiers, allowing them to sustain themselves during periods between campaigns.^[19] However, it ultimately failed due to the inability to effectively self-supply provisions, leading to widespread desertion among units dependent on this method of provisioning.^[20]